从目的论角度探索商贸英语的翻译硕士学位论文

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本科毕业论文格式要求一、论文的结构与要求毕业设计（论文）包括以下内容（按顺序）：本科论文包括封面、目录、标题、内容摘要、关键词、正文、注释、参考文献等部分。如果需要，可以在正文前加“引言”，在参考文献后加“后记”。论文一律要求打印，不得手写。1．目录目录应独立成页，包括论文中全部章、节和主要级次的标题和所在页码。2．论文标题论文标题应当简短、明确，有概括性。论文标题应能体现论文的核心内容、法学专业的特点。论文标题不得超过25个汉字，不得设置副标题，不得使用标点符号，可以分二行书写。论文标题用词必须规范，不得使用缩略语或外文缩写词（通用缩写除外，比如WTO等）。3．内容摘要内容摘要应扼要叙述论文的主要内容、特点，文字精练，是一篇具有独立性和完整性的短文，包括主要成果和结论性意见。摘要中不应使用公式、图表，不标注引用文献编号，并应避免将摘要撰写成目录式的内容介绍。内容摘要一般为200个汉字左右。4．关键词关键词是供检索用的主题词条，应采用能够覆盖论文主要内容的通用专业术语（参照相应的专业术语标准），一般列举3——5个，按照词条的外延层次从大到小排列，并应出现在内容摘要中。5．正文正文一般包括绪论（引论）、本论和结论等部分。正文字数本科不少于6000字，专科一般不少于5000字，正文必须从页首开始。*绪论（引论）全文的开始部分，不编写章节号。一般包括对写作目的、意义的说明，对所研究问题的认识并提出问题。*本论是全文的核心部分，应结构合理，层次清晰，重点突出，文字通顺简练。*结论是对主要成果的归纳，要突出创新点，以简练的文字对所做的主要工作进行评价。结论一般不超过500个汉字。正文一级及以下子标题格式如下：一、；（一）；1.；（1）；①。6．注释注释是对所创造的名词术语的解释或对引文出处的说明。注释采用脚注形式，用带圈数字表示序号，如注①、注②等，数量不少于10个，脚注少于10个的论文为不合格论文。7．参考文献参考文献是论文的不可缺少的组成部分,是作者在写作过程中使用过的文章、著作名录。参考文献应以近期发表或出版的与法学专业密切相关的学术著作和学术期刊文献为主，数量不少于6篇，参考文献少于6篇的论文成绩评定为不合格。产品说明、技术标准、未公开出版或发表的研究论文等不列为参考文献，有确需说明的可以在后记中予以说明。二、打印装订要求论文必须使用标准A4打印纸打印，一律左侧装订，并至少印制3份。页面上、下边距各2.5厘米，左右边距各2.2厘米，并按论文装订顺序要求如下：1．封面封面包括《广西广播电视大学关于毕业设计（论文）评审表》（封面、附录4）、《学生毕业设计（论文）评审表》（封2）、《广西广播电视大学关于毕业设计（论文）答辩申报表》（封3、附录5）。2．目录目录列至论文正文的三级及以上标题所在页码，内容打印要求与正文相同。目录页不设页码。3．内容摘要摘要标题按照正文一级子标题要求处理，摘要内容按照正文要求处理。4．关键词索引关键词与内容摘要同处一页，位于内容摘要之后，另起一行并以“关键词：”开头（采用黑体），后跟3~5个关键词（采用宋体），词间空1字，即两个字节，其他要求同正文。5．正文正文必须从内容提要页开始，并设置为第1页。页码在页末居中打印，其他要求同正文（如正文第5页格式为“―5―”）。论文标题为标准三号黑体字，居中，单倍行间距；论文一级子标题为标准四号黑体字，居中，20磅行间距；正文一律使用标准小四号宋体字，段落开头空两个字，行间距为固定值20磅；正文中的插图应与文字紧密配合，文图相符，内容正确，绘制规范。插图按章编号并置于插图的正下方，插图不命名，如第二章的第三个插图序号为“图2—3”，插图序号使用标准五号宋体字；正文中的插表不加左右边线。插表按章编号并置于插表的左上方，插表不命名，如第二章的第三个插表序号为“表2—3”，插表序号使用标准五号宋体字。6、参考文献按照GB7714—87《文后参考文献著录规则》规定的格式打印，内容打印要求与论文正文相同。参考文献从页首开始，格式如下：（1）著作图书文献序号作者《书名》，出版地：出版者，出版年份及版次（第一版省略）如：[4]劳凯声《教育法论》，南京：江苏教育出版社，2001（2）译著图书文献序号作者《书名》，出版地：出版者，出版年份及版次（第一版省略）（3）学术刊物文献序号作者《文章名》，《学术刊物名》，年卷（期）如：[5]周汉华《变法模式与中国立法法》，《中国社会科学》，2000（1）（4）学术会议文献序号作者《文章名》，编者名，会议名称，会议地址，年份，出版地，出版者，出版年（5）学位论文类参考文献序号作者《学位论文题目》，学校和学位论文级别，答辩年份（6）西文文献著录格式同中文，实词的首字母大写，其余小写。参考文献作者人数较多者只列前三名，中间用逗号分隔，多于三人的后面加“等”字（西文加“etc.”）。学术会议若出版论文集者，在会议名称后加“论文集”字样；未出版论文集者省去“出版者”、“出版年”项；会议地址与出版地相同的省略“出版地”，会议年份与出版年相同的省略“出版年”。三、毕业设计（论文）装袋要求毕业设计（论文）是专业教学的重要内容，必须规范管理，统一毕业设计（论文）材料装袋要求：1、论文稿本。经指导的提纲，一稿、二稿和装订好的正稿。2、过程记录表。包括指导教师指导记录表，学生毕业设计（论文）评审表（答辩过程记录表）等；3、相关材料。法专业要求的其他材料，如法学社会调查报告等。中国环境教育立法研究内容摘要摘要：目前，我国学术界对环境教育立法问题的研究还处于起步阶段，有关环境教育的法律规范也很不完善，影响和限制了我国环境教育的大力推行和良好普及，实质上是制约了我国解决环境问题的能力和可持续发展的进程。本文从环境问题的现状入手，阐释了环境教育立法的必要性和可行性，介绍了其他国家和地区的环境教育立法实践，在总结国内外先进经验的基础上，提出了对我国环境教育立法的构想。以期通过加强教育立法的途径，实现我国环境教育的普及，为改善解决我国环境问题的能力和可持续发展的进程创造条件。关键词：环境问题环境教育环境教育立法一、环境问题、环境教育与环境教育立法（一）环境问题马克思说：“人靠自然界生活，这就是说，自然界是为了不致死亡而必须不断与之交往。所谓人的肉体生活和精神生活同自然界相联系，也就等于说自然界同自身相联系，因为人是自然界的一部分。”生存与发展是人类社会最基本的主题。在人类与环境不断地相互影响和作用中，环境问题始终是伴随着人类的活动产生和发展的。不幸的是，在相当长的时期内，人类过分强调了作为自然主人的一面，夸大了人的主观能动性作用，忽视甚至忘却自然界的惩罚。环境问题并非始于今日，早在200年前的第一次工业革命时期就产生了环境问题。到了本世纪50年代，环境事件不断出现和加剧。到了70～80年代则出现了全球性的环境危机。目前全球人口正以每年9000万的速度增长，预计到21世纪中期，世界人口将达到100亿。人口无节制地增长，给地球的生态环境和有限的自然资源带来了沉重的压力。联合国列出了威胁人类生存的全球十大环境问题：全球气候变暖；臭氧层的损耗和破坏；酸雨蔓延；水资源危机；生物多样性减少；大气污染；有毒有害化学物质污染与危险废物越境转移；森林面积锐减；土地荒漠化；海洋污染。随着我国社会经济的迅速发展，环境保护与经济发展之间的矛盾日益凸显。20世纪最后几年有三件震撼国人的大事足以说明我国环境问题的严重性，已显示出环境破坏给人类带来的灾难性的报复。一是1997年创纪录(227天)的黄河断流；二是1998年的长江大水灾；三是2000年波及北京等地的频繁的沙尘暴。专家指出了目前困扰中国环境的十大问题。1、大气污染问题2004年我国二氧化硫排放量为1995万吨，居世界第一位。据专家测算，要满足全国天气的环境容量要求，二氧化硫排放量要在现有基础上至少削减40%。此外，2004年中国烟尘排放量为1165万吨，工业粉尘的排放量为1092万吨。大气污染是中国目前面临的第一大环境问题。2、水环境污染问题中国七大水系的污染程度依次是：辽河、海河、淮河、黄河、松花江、珠江、长江，其中，42%的水质超过3类标准（不能做饮用水源），全国有36%的城市河段为劣质5类水质，丧失使用功能。大型淡水湖泊（水库）和城市湖泊水质普遍较差，75%以上的湖泊富营养化加剧，主要由氮、磷污染引起。3、垃圾处理问题中国全国工业固体废物年产生量达8.2亿吨，综合利用率约为46%。全国城市生活垃圾年产生量为1.4亿吨，达到无害化处理要求的不到10%。塑料包装物和农膜导致的白色污染已蔓延全国各地。（二）环境教育与环境问题的关系1、环境教育的发展历程环境教育的起源，一直可以追溯到19世纪末20世纪初的自然研究（NaturalStudy）。当时在学校开展自然研究的基本目的是教育学生通过亲身观察和参与，了解和评价自然环境。到20世纪上叶，人们认识到保护生态和自然环境的重要性，保护运动（Conservationmovement）在社会中形成，学校教育在自然研究的基础上引入了自然保护的教育内容，这就是环境教育的萌芽。（1）国外环境教育的发展历程1972年在瑞典首都斯德哥尔摩召开的“世界人类环境会议”是环境教育发展的一个里程碑。为了响应斯德哥尔摩会议的第96条建议，联合国教科文组织和联合国环境规划署于1975年颁布了国际环境教育计划（IEEP），其目的是在环境教育领域内，促进经验和信息的交流、研究和实验、人员培训、课程和相应教材的开发及国际合作。1975年，在前南斯拉夫的贝尔格莱德召开的国际环境教育会议，通过了《贝尔格莱德宪章：环境教育的全球纲领》。该宪章根据环境教育的性质和目标，指出环境教育是“进一步认识和关心经济、社会、政治和生态在城乡地区的相互依赖性；为每一个人提供获得保护环境的知识和价值观、态度、责任感和技能；创造个人、群体和整个社会行为的新模式。”此后，《贝尔格莱德宪章》成为世界各国制定环境教育纲要与章程的重要依据之一。而环境教育的普及对环境相关法律的立法、执法都可起到相当大的辅助作用。大力开展环境教育，使环境意识特别是环境保护法律意识深入人心，使人们认识到环境问题不仅是社会问题，更是可以涉及到每个人切身利益和法律责任、社会责任的问题，认识到环境问题和法律责任的关系，更好地使环境保护法律成为预防环境问题发生的利剑，这样可以达到依法治理环境和人们自觉保护环境的目的。二、中国环境教育立法的必要性和可行性（一）中国环境教育立法的必要性当一种社会关系需要用立法来调整，说明这种社会关系的重要性。中国环境教育专门立法是否必要，则完全取决于以下前提：（1）环境教育的重要性；（2）环境教育立法对社会经济发展的重要作用。五、结论21世纪是环境世纪，公众的环境意识通过环境教育来建立。根据我国人口多，地区经济水平差异大，公民受教育程度不一的现状，要使公众的环境保护意识提高到一个比较高的水平，实现社会——经济——环境的协调发展，尽早达到国家的可持续发展目标，构建和谐社会，通过立法机关制定完善的、具有可操作性的《环境教育法》不失为一个有效的方法。希望对促进我国环境教育法律体系的建立提供一些有益的参考。识和关心经济、社会、政治和生态在城乡地区的相互依赖性；为每一个人提供获得保护环境的知识和价值观、态度、责任感和技能；创造个人、群体和整个社会行为的新模式。”此后，《贝尔格莱德宪章》成为世界各国制定环境教育纲要与章程的重要依据之一。而环境教育的普及对环境相关法律的立法、执法都可起到相当大的辅助作用。大力开展环境教育，使环境意识特别是环境保护法律意识深入人心，使人们认识到环境问题不仅是社会问题，更是可以涉及到每个人切身利益和法律责任、社会责任的问题，认识到环境问题和法律责任的关系，更好地使环境保护法律成为预防环境问题发生的利剑，这样可以达到依法治理环境和人们自觉保护环境的目的。二、中国环境教育立法的必要性和可行性（一）中国环境教育立法的必要性当一种社会关系需要用立法来调整，说明这种社会关系的重要性。中国环境教育专门立法是否必要，则完全取决于以下前提：（1）环境教育的重要性；（2）环境教育立法我国环境教育法律体系的建立提供一些有益的参考。 本科毕业论文格式要求一、论文的结构与要求毕业设计（论文）包括以下内容（按顺序）：本科论文包括封面、目录、标题、内容摘要、关键词、正文、注释、参考文献等部分。如果需要，可以在正文前加“引言”，在参考文献后加“后记”。论文一律要求打印，不得手写。1．目录目录应独立成页，包括论文中全部章、节和主要级次的标题和所在页码。2．论文标题论文标题应当简短、明确，有概括性。论文标题应能体现论文的核心内容、法学专业的特点。论文标题不得超过25个汉字，不得设置副标题，不得使用标点符号，可以分二行书写。论文标题用词必须规范，不得使用缩略语或外文缩写词（通用缩写除外，比如WTO等）。3．内容摘要内容摘要应扼要叙述论文的主要内容、特点，文字精练，是一篇具有独立性和完整性的短文，包括主要成果和结论性意见。摘要中不应使用公式、图表，不标注引用文献编号，并应避免将摘要撰写成目录式的内容介绍。内容摘要一般为200个汉字左右。4．关键词关键词是供检索用的主题词条，应采用能够覆盖论文主要内容的通用专业术语（参照相应的专业术语标准），一般列举3——5个，按照词条的外延层次从大到小排列，并应出现在内容摘要中。5．正文正文一般包括绪论（引论）、本论和结论等部分。正文字数本科不少于6000字，专科一般不少于5000字，正文必须从页首开始。*绪论（引论）全文的开始部分，不编写章节号。一般包括对写作目的、意义的说明，对所研究问题的认识并提出问题。*本论是全文的核心部分，应结构合理，层次清晰，重点突出，文字通顺简练。*结论是对主要成果的归纳，要突出创新点，以简练的文字对所做的主要工作进行评价。结论一般不超过500个汉字。正文一级及以下子标题格式如下：一、；（一）；1.；（1）；①。6．注释注释是对所创造的名词术语的解释或对引文出处的说明。注释采用脚注形式，用带圈数字表示序号，如注①、注②等，数量不少于10个，脚注少于10个的论文为不合格论文。7．参考文献参考文献是论文的不可缺少的组成部分,是作者在写作过程中使用过的文章、著作名录。参考文献应以近期发表或出版的与法学专业密切相关的学术著作和学术期刊文献为主，数量不少于6篇，参考文献少于6篇的论文成绩评定为不合格。产品说明、技术标准、未公开出版或发表的研究论文等不列为参考文献，有确需说明的可以在后记中予以说明。二、打印装订要求论文必须使用标准A4打印纸打印，一律左侧装订，并至少印制3份。页面上、下边距各2.5厘米，左右边距各2.2厘米，并按论文装订顺序要求如下：1．封面封面包括《广西广播电视大学关于毕业设计（论文）评审表》（封面、附录4）、《学生毕业设计（论文）评审表》（封2）、《广西广播电视大学关于毕业设计（论文）答辩申报表》（封3、附录5）。2．目录目录列至论文正文的三级及以上标题所在页码，内容打印要求与正文相同。目录页不设页码。3．内容摘要摘要标题按照正文一级子标题要求处理，摘要内容按照正文要求处理。4．关键词索引关键词与内容摘要同处一页，位于内容摘要之后，另起一行并以“关键词：”开头（采用黑体），后跟3~5个关键词（采用宋体），词间空1字，即两个字节，其他要求同正文。5．正文正文必须从内容提要页开始，并设置为第1页。页码在页末居中打印，其他要求同正文（如正文第5页格式为“―5―”）。论文标题为标准三号黑体字，居中，单倍行间距；论文一级子标题为标准四号黑体字，居中，20磅行间距；正文一律使用标准小四号宋体字，段落开头空两个字，行间距为固定值20磅；正文中的插图应与文字紧密配合，文图相符，内容正确，绘制规范。插图按章编号并置于插图的正下方，插图不命名，如第二章的第三个插图序号为“图2—3”，插图序号使用标准五号宋体字；正文中的插表不加左右边线。插表按章编号并置于插表的左上方，插表不命名，如第二章的第三个插表序号为“表2—3”，插表序号使用标准五号宋体字。6、参考文献按照GB7714—87《文后参考文献著录规则》规定的格式打印，内容打印要求与论文正文相同。参考文献从页首开始，格式如下：（1）著作图书文献序号作者《书名》，出版地：出版者，出版年份及版次（第一版省略）如：[4]劳凯声《教育法论》，南京：江苏教育出版社，2001（2）译著图书文献序号作者《书名》，出版地：出版者，出版年份及版次（第一版省略）（3）学术刊物文献序号作者《文章名》，《学术刊物名》，年卷（期）如：[5]周汉华《变法模式与中国立法法》，《中国社会科学》，2000（1）（4）学术会议文献序号作者《文章名》，编者名，会议名称，会议地址，年份，出版地，出版者，出版年（5）学位论文类参考文献序号作者《学位论文题目》，学校和学位论文级别，答辩年份（6）西文文献著录格式同中文，实词的首字母大写，其余小写。参考文献作者人数较多者只列前三名，中间用逗号分隔，多于三人的后面加“等”字（西文加“etc.”）。学术会议若出版论文集者，在会议名称后加“论文集”字样；未出版论文集者省去“出版者”、“出版年”项；会议地址与出版地相同的省略“出版地”，会议年份与出版年相同的省略“出版年”。三、毕业设计（论文）装袋要求毕业设计（论文）是专业教学的重要内容，必须规范管理，统一毕业设计（论文）材料装袋要求：1、论文稿本。经指导的提纲，一稿、二稿和装订好的正稿。2、过程记录表。包括指导教师指导记录表，学生毕业设计（论文）评审表（答辩过程记录表）等；3、相关材料。法专业要求的其他材料，如法学社会调查报告等。中国环境教育立法研究内容摘要摘要：目前，我国学术界对环境教育立法问题的研究还处于起步阶段，有关环境教育的法律规范也很不完善，影响和限制了我国环境教育的大力推行和良好普及，实质上是制约了我国解决环境问题的能力和可持续发展的进程。本文从环境问题的现状入手，阐释了环境教育立法的必要性和可行性，介绍了其他国家和地区的环境教育立法实践，在总结国内外先进经验的基础上，提出了对我国环境教育立法的构想。以期通过加强教育立法的途径，实现我国环境教育的普及，为改善解决我国环境问题的能力和可持续发展的进程创造条件。关键词：环境问题环境教育环境教育立法一、环境问题、环境教育与环境教育立法（一）环境问题马克思说：“人靠自然界生活，这就是说，自然界是为了不致死亡而必须不断与之交往。所谓人的肉体生活和精神生活同自然界相联系，也就等于说自然界同自身相联系，因为人是自然界的一部分。”生存与发展是人类社会最基本的主题。在人类与环境不断地相互影响和作用中，环境问题始终是伴随着人类的活动产生和发展的。不幸的是，在相当长的时期内，人类过分强调了作为自然主人的一面，夸大了人的主观能动性作用，忽视甚至忘却自然界的惩罚。环境问题并非始于今日，早在200年前的第一次工业革命时期就产生了环境问题。到了本世纪50年代，环境事件不断出现和加剧。到了70～80年代则出现了全球性的环境危机。目前全球人口正以每年9000万的速度增长，预计到21世纪中期，世界人口将达到100亿。人口无节制地增长，给地球的生态环境和有限的自然资源带来了沉重的压力。联合国列出了威胁人类生存的全球十大环境问题：全球气候变暖；臭氧层的损耗和破坏；酸雨蔓延；水资源危机；生物多样性减少；大气污染；有毒有害化学物质污染与危险废物越境转移；森林面积锐减；土地荒漠化；海洋污染。随着我国社会经济的迅速发展，环境保护与经济发展之间的矛盾日益凸显。20世纪最后几年有三件震撼国人的大事足以说明我国环境问题的严重性，已显示出环境破坏给人类带来的灾难性的报复。一是1997年创纪录(227天)的黄河断流；二是1998年的长江大水灾；三是2000年波及北京等地的频繁的沙尘暴。专家指出了目前困扰中国环境的十大问题。1、大气污染问题2004年我国二氧化硫排放量为1995万吨，居世界第一位。据专家测算，要满足全国天气的环境容量要求，二氧化硫排放量要在现有基础上至少削减40%。此外，2004年中国烟尘排放量为1165万吨，工业粉尘的排放量为1092万吨。大气污染是中国目前面临的第一大环境问题。2、水环境污染问题中国七大水系的污染程度依次是：辽河、海河、淮河、黄河、松花江、珠江、长江，其中，42%的水质超过3类标准（不能做饮用水源），全国有36%的城市河段为劣质5类水质，丧失使用功能。大型淡水湖泊（水库）和城市湖泊水质普遍较差，75%以上的湖泊富营养化加剧，主要由氮、磷污染引起。3、垃圾处理问题中国全国工业固体废物年产生量达8.2亿吨，综合利用率约为46%。全国城市生活垃圾年产生量为1.4亿吨，达到无害化处理要求的不到10%。塑料包装物和农膜导致的白色污染已蔓延全国各地。（二）环境教育与环境问题的关系1、环境教育的发展历程环境教育的起源，一直可以追溯到19世纪末20世纪初的自然研究（NaturalStudy）。当时在学校开展自然研究的基本目的是教育学生通过亲身观察和参与，了解和评价自然环境。到20世纪上叶，人们认识到保护生态和自然环境的重要性，保护运动（Conservationmovement）在社会中形成，学校教育在自然研究的基础上引入了自然保护的教育内容，这就是环境教育的萌芽。（1）国外环境教育的发展历程1972年在瑞典首都斯德哥尔摩召开的“世界人类环境会议”是环境教育发展的一个里程碑。为了响应斯德哥尔摩会议的第96条建议，联合国教科文组织和联合国环境规划署于1975年颁布了国际环境教育计划（IEEP），其目的是在环境教育领域内，促进经验和信息的交流、研究和实验、人员培训、课程和相应教材的开发及国际合作。1975年，在前南斯拉夫的贝尔格莱德召开的国际环境教育会议，通过了《贝尔格莱德宪章：环境教育的全球纲领》。该宪章根据环境教育的性质和目标，指出环境教育是“进一步认识和关心经济、社会、政治和生态在城乡地区的相互依赖性；为每一个人提供获得保护环境的知识和价值观、态度、责任感和技能；创造个人、群体和整个社会行为的新模式。”此后，《贝尔格莱德宪章》成为世界各国制定环境教育纲要与章程的重要依据之一。而环境教育的普及对环境相关法律的立法、执法都可起到相当大的辅助作用。大力开展环境教育，使环境意识特别是环境保护法律意识深入人心，使人们认识到环境问题不仅是社会问题，更是可以涉及到每个人切身利益和法律责任、社会责任的问题，认识到环境问题和法律责任的关系，更好地使环境保护法律成为预防环境问题发生的利剑，这样可以达到依法治理环境和人们自觉保护环境的目的。二、中国环境教育立法的必要性和可行性（一）中国环境教育立法的必要性当一种社会关系需要用立法来调整，说明这种社会关系的重要性。中国环境教育专门立法是否必要，则完全取决于以下前提：（1）环境教育的重要性；（2）环境教育立法对社会经济发展的重要作用。五、结论21世纪是环境世纪，公众的环境意识通过环境教育来建立。根据我国人口多，地区经济水平差异大，公民受教育程度不一的现状，要使公众的环境保护意识提高到一个比较高的水平，实现社会——经济——环境的协调发展，尽早达到国家的可持续发展目标，构建和谐社会，通过立法机关制定完善的、具有可操作性的《环境教育法》不失为一个有效的方法。希望对促进我国环境教育法律体系的建立提供一些有益的参考。识和关心经济、社会、政治和生态在城乡地区的相互依赖性；为每一个人提供获得保护环境的知识和价值观、态度、责任感和技能；创造个人、群体和整个社会行为的新模式。”此后，《贝尔格莱德宪章》成为世界各国制定环境教育纲要与章程的重要依据之一。而环境教育的普及对环境相关法律的立法、执法都可起到相当大的辅助作用。大力开展环境教育，使环境意识特别是环境保护法律意识深入人心，使人们认识到环境问题不仅是社会问题，更是可以涉及到每个人切身利益和法律责任、社会责任的问题，认识到环境问题和法律责任的关系，更好地使环境保护法律成为预防环境问题发生的利剑，这样可以达到依法治理环境和人们自觉保护环境的目的。二、中国环境教育立法的必要性和可行性（一）中国环境教育立法的必要性当一种社会关系需要用立法来调整，说明这种社会关系的重要性。中国环境教育专门立法是否必要，则完全取决于以下前提：（1）环境教育的重要性；（2）环境教育立法我国环境教育法律体系的建立提供一些有益的参考。 学校代码：10254密级：论文编号：上海海事大学SHANGHAIMARITIMEUNIVERSITY硕士学位论文MASTERTHESIS论文题目：从目的论角度探索商贸英语的翻译学科专业：外国语言学及应用语言学作者姓名：指导教师：完成日期： 论文独创性声明本论文是我个人在导师指导下进行的研究工作及取得的研究成果。论文中除了特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，不包含其他人或其他机构已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。其他同志对本研究的启发和所做的贡献均已在论文中作了明确的声明并表示了谢意。作者签名：祝荣玲日期：2009年7月5日论文使用授权声明本人同意上海海运学院有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，即：学校有权保留送交论文复印件，允许论文被查阅和借阅；学校可以上网公布论文的全部或部分内容，可以采用影印、缩印或者其它复制手段保存论文。保密的论文在解密后遵守此规定。作者签名：祝荣玲导师签名：日期2009年7月5日 毕业设计（论文）原创性声明和使用授权说明原创性声明本人郑重承诺：所呈交的毕业设计（论文），是我个人在指导教师的指导下进行的研究工作及取得的成果。尽我所知，除文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，不包含其他人或组织已经发表或公布过的研究成果，也不包含我为获得及其它教育机构的学位或学历而使用过的材料。对本研究提供过帮助和做出过贡献的个人或集体，均已在文中作了明确的说明并表示了谢意。作者签名：　　　　　日　期：　　　　　指导教师签名：　　　　　日　　期：　　　　　使用授权说明本人完全了解大学关于收集、保存、使用毕业设计（论文）的规定，即：按照学校要求提交毕业设计（论文）的印刷本和电子版本；学校有权保存毕业设计（论文）的印刷本和电子版，并提供目录检索与阅览服务；学校可以采用影印、缩印、数字化或其它复制手段保存论文；在不以赢利为目的前提下，学校可以公布论文的部分或全部内容。作者签名：　　　　　日　期：　　　　　 学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的论文是本人在导师的指导下独立进行研究所取得的研究成果。除了文中特别加以标注引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写的成果作品。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律后果由本人承担。作者签名：日期：年月日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，同意学校保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权　　　　大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存和汇编本学位论文。涉密论文按学校规定处理。作者签名：日期：年月日导师签名：日期：年月日 指导教师评阅书指导教师评价：一、撰写（设计）过程1、学生在论文（设计）过程中的治学态度、工作精神□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、学生掌握专业知识、技能的扎实程度□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、学生综合运用所学知识和专业技能分析和解决问题的能力□优□良□中□及格□不及格4、研究方法的科学性；技术线路的可行性；设计方案的合理性□优□良□中□及格□不及格5、完成毕业论文（设计）期间的出勤情况□优□良□中□及格□不及格二、论文（设计）质量1、论文（设计）的整体结构是否符合撰写规范？□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、是否完成指定的论文（设计）任务（包括装订及附件）？□优□良□中□及格□不及格三、论文（设计）水平1、论文（设计）的理论意义或对解决实际问题的指导意义□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、论文的观念是否有新意？设计是否有创意？□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、论文（设计说明书）所体现的整体水平□优□良□中□及格□不及格建议成绩：□优□良□中□及格□不及格（在所选等级前的□内画“√”）指导教师：（签名）单位：（盖章）年月日 评阅教师评阅书评阅教师评价：一、论文（设计）质量1、论文（设计）的整体结构是否符合撰写规范？□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、是否完成指定的论文（设计）任务（包括装订及附件）？□优□良□中□及格□不及格二、论文（设计）水平1、论文（设计）的理论意义或对解决实际问题的指导意义□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、论文的观念是否有新意？设计是否有创意？□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、论文（设计说明书）所体现的整体水平□优□良□中□及格□不及格建议成绩：□优□良□中□及格□不及格（在所选等级前的□内画“√”）评阅教师：（签名）单位：（盖章）年月日 教研室（或答辩小组）及教学系意见教研室（或答辩小组）评价：一、答辩过程1、毕业论文（设计）的基本要点和见解的叙述情况□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、对答辩问题的反应、理解、表达情况□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、学生答辩过程中的精神状态□优□良□中□及格□不及格二、论文（设计）质量1、论文（设计）的整体结构是否符合撰写规范？□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、是否完成指定的论文（设计）任务（包括装订及附件）？□优□良□中□及格□不及格三、论文（设计）水平1、论文（设计）的理论意义或对解决实际问题的指导意义□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、论文的观念是否有新意？设计是否有创意？□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、论文（设计说明书）所体现的整体水平□优□良□中□及格□不及格评定成绩：□优□良□中□及格□不及格（在所选等级前的□内画“√”）教研室主任（或答辩小组组长）：（签名）年月日教学系意见：系主任：（签名）年月日 OnTranslationofBusinessEnglishfromthePerspectiveofSkoposTheoryByZhuRonglingUndertheSupervisionofProfessorZuoBiaoAThesisSubmittedtotheCollegeofForeignLanguagesofShanghaiMaritimeUniversityinPartialFulfillmentoftheRequirementsfortheMADegreeShanghaiMaritimeUniversityJune,2009 AcknowledgementsFirstofall,Iamdeeplyindebtedtomysupervisor,ProfessorZuoBiao,notonlyfortheinvaluabletimeandenergyhespent,butalsoforhiscriticism,encouragingcomments.Withouthisselflessandpatienthelp,thisdissertationwouldnothavebeenpossible.SincerethanksalsogotoProf.HanZhonghua,Prof.WangJuquan,Prof.WangDawei,Prof.ZhengLixin,Prof.MaoJuncun,Prof.YuanYongfangandotherteachersofourdepartment,whohaveprovidedmewithexcellentteachingoverthepasttwoyears.Finally,Iwillextendmygratitudetomyfamilyandallmydearfriendsfortheirselflesssupportandencouragementtomethroughouttheyearsofmypostgraduatestudy.iv 摘要随着世界经济的快速发展，商贸文献翻译在国际商贸领域以及现代社会发挥着至关重要的作用。关于如何把适当的翻译理论应用于商贸文献翻译，学界已有大量的研究。本文旨在从一个新的角度来探讨这一话题,并进一步介绍与阐述一个新兴的功能翻译理论——目的论,。本论文对于目的论的几大要点进行总体的概括，即：该理论的发展背景，基本原则，基本概念，以及相关规则。除此之外，还对目的论用于指导商贸英语翻译的可行性进行了探索与研究，希望以此能够真正地有助于提高商贸英语翻译的质量。该论文共由六章构成。第一章介绍该研究的背景与目的，并对中西方的一些传统翻译理论进行了简要介绍。第二章对商贸英语进行概述，并从词汇，句法以及文体等方面分析商贸英语所具有的特点。第三章对目的论要点以及商贸英语含义进行比较详实的阐述。第四章以大量实例探讨目的论在商贸英语文献翻译中的实际运用，证实目的论用于指导商贸英语翻译的可行性。第五章进一步阐述从目的论这一新角度探索商贸文献翻译所得到的启示。第六章讨论该研究的意义以及局限性。本论文对于具有一定历史意义的新理论运用于商贸文献翻译作了初步探讨，以期为翻译者找到更好的翻译方法，以提高商贸英语的翻译质量。在本论文中，该论文只是提供了一些粗浅的评述，意在抛砖引玉，以此为基础，引出关于此话题更有价值的观点。关键词:目的论；商贸英语翻译；可行性iv AbstractWiththequickeningofglobalizedeconomy,businesstranslationhasplayedanimportantroleintheinternationalbusinesssphereandinthemodernsocietyasawhole,andtherehasbeenmuchstudyofhowtoapplyappropriatetranslationaltheoriestothetranslationofbusinessdocuments.ThispaperintendstodiscussthistopicfromanewperspectivebyintroducingandexpoundingonSkopostheory,anewly-emergingfunctionalisttheoryoftranslation.ThepapermakesageneralaccountoftheessentialsofSkopostheory,namely,itshistoryofdevelopment,itsbasicprinciplesandconcepts,anditsrules,andthenexploresthefeasibilityofapplyingSkopostheorytothetranslationofbusinessdocumentswiththehopeofpracticallyhelpingtoimprovebusinesstranslation.Thepaperiscomposedofsixchapters.Chapter1dealswiththebackgroundandtheaimoftheresearch,andmakesabriefintroductiontosometraditionaltheoriesoftranslationbothwesternandChinese.Chapter2displaysanoverviewofbusinesslanguage,analyzingitscharacteristicsatthelexical,syntacticandstylisticlevels.Chapter3expoundsontheessentialsofSkopostheoryanditsimplicationonbusinesstranslation.Chapter4focusesonthepracticalapplicationofSkopostheorytothetranslationofbusinessdocuments,viewingbusinesstranslationasintentionalinteraction,iv interpersonalinteraction,communicativeinteractionandinter-culturalinteraction.Chapter5presentssomeenlightenmentfromthestudyofSkopostheoryandChapter6discussesboththesignificanceandlimitationsofthestudies.Thispapermakesatentativeexplorationofapplyinganewtheorytobusinesstranslationwithaviewtofindingbetterwaysfortranslatorstoimprovethequalityofbusinesstranslation.WithSkopostheorybeingnotyetmature,thepaperoffersabasisforfurtherdiscussionwithsomepreliminaryviewsinordertoelicitmorevaluableopinionsonthetopic.Keywords:Skopostheory;Businesstranslation;Feasibilityiv ContentsAcknowledgementsi摘要iiAbstractiiiChapter1AnIntroductiontoTranslationinGeneralandSkoposTheory11.1ResearchBackgroundoftheThesis11.2Theessenceoftranslationasviewedbywesterntheorists21.2.1Thelinguisticschool21.2.2Theculturalschool41.2.3Thefunctionalschool51.3TranslationcriteriaputforwardbyChinesetranslatorsortranslationtheorists61.4AnintroductiontoSkopostheory71.4.1Abriefaccountofthetheory71.4.2TheapplicationofthetheoryinChina91.5Problemstobediscussedinthisresearch101.6Thestructureofthethesis10Chapter2AnOverviewofBusinessEnglishandBusinessTranslation112.1BusinessEnglish122.1.1BusinesslanguageandbusinessEnglish122.1.2CharacteristicsofbusinessEnglish132.2Differencebetweenbusinesstranslationandinterpretation212.2.1Mediumforunderstanding222.2.2Timeavailability222.2.3Occasionsforoperation232.2.4Usefulfactors232.2.5Meaningandform242.2.6Registerdistinction242.3Requirementsforsuccessfulbusinesstranslation262.3.1Tobebilingualtoacertainextent262.3.2Tobebiculturaltoacertainextent272.3.3Tohaveadequateknowledgeofbusinesssubjects282.3.4Togetacquaintedwithtranslationtheoriesandskills28Chapter3EssentialsofSkoposTheoryandTheirImplicationson BusinessTranslation303.1Skoposandfunctionalistapproach303.1.1Earlyadvocatesoffunctionalistapproach303.1.2VermeerandSkopos313.1.3Laterdevelopmentoffunctionalisticapproach323.2MajorconceptsofSkopostheory323.2.1Three‘purposes’323.2.2‘Purpose’andothersynonymousterms333.2.3RulesinSkopostheory343.3ImplicationsofSkopostheoryontranslation373.3.1Theoverridingroleof‘purpose’intranslation373.3.2Thecomplementaryroleof‘loyalty’intranslation383.3.3Theindispensableroleofcultureintranslation393.4Summary39Chapter4ApplicationofSkoposTheorytoBusinessTranslation414.1FeasibilityoftheapplicationofSkopostheory414.1.1Businesstranslationasintentionalinteraction414.1.2Businesstranslationasinterpersonalinteraction424.1.3Businesstranslationascommunicativeinteraction434.1.4Businesstranslationasinterculturalinteraction434.2Skopostheoryandtranslatingstrategies454.2.1Thestrategyofforeignization454.2.2Thestrategyofdomestication574.3Summary67Chapter5SomeEnlightenmentsfromSkoposStudies685.1Skopos(purpose)asthetoppriorityintranslationalaction685.2BusinesstranslationasgovernedbySkopos695.3TranslatingstrategiesasdeterminedbySkopos715.4Twotranslationstrategiescomplementingeachother725.5ThecommunicativepurposeasthemajorSkopos735.6Thereceiveroftranslationasadecisivefactor74Chapter6Conclusion766.1ThesignificanceofSkopostheory766.1.1Skopostheoryasaguidingprincipleinbusinesstranslation766.1.2Skopostheoryasadecisivefactorinformingtranslationapproaches776.1.3Skopostheory’simpactonthechoiceoftranslationstrategy806.1.4Skopostheoryofferingabasisforcreativetranslation816.2ThelimitationsofSkopostheory82Bibliography85 Chapter1AnIntroductiontoTranslationinGeneralandSkoposTheory1.1ResearchBackgroundoftheThesisWithChina’sentryintoWTOandrapidglobalizationofworldeconomy,businesstranslationhasplayedamoreandmoreimportantroleincross-culturalcommunication.Thetranslatoractsasabridgewhichmakesitimpossibleforpeopleofdifferentlanguagesandculturestocommunicatewitheachother.Inthebusinessflowbetweencountries,businessEnglish,asoneofthemeanstopromotecommerceandcommunicationhasundoubtedlybecomeamustintheinternationalsociety.BusinessEnglishinvolvescommercialactivitiesforsatisfyingtheobjectivesofindividualsandorganizations.Itisusednotonlyininternationaltradeandforeignmanufacturingbutalsointhegrowingserviceindustry,whichcoverstransportation,tourism,banking,advertising,construction,retailing,wholesaling,insurance,education,masscommunicationandotherrelatedfields.Itisreportedthatnearly90%ofthosewhouseEnglishastheirfirstlanguageorsecondlanguagehavecertaincontactwithbusinessEnglish.AstheneedofbusinessEnglishisgrowing,businesstranslationhasshownitscorrespondingimportanceaswell.Manyexpertsonlanguage andtranslationareexploringpropertheoriesandmethodsfortranslatingbusinessdocuments,andmostofthemhaveagreedonSkopostheory,whichisconsideredtobeanappropriatetheoryforsolvingtheproblemsofbusinesstranslation.Skopostheoryistarget-oriented,whichcohereswiththeaimofbusinesswhichcentersonattractingthecustomersandadvertisingtheirproductsinordertomakepeoplepurchasetheirproducts.Tosomedegree,Skopostheoryismorepracticalnotonlyforindividualtranslatorsbutalsofororganizationsindoingbusinesstranslation.ThispaperfocusesonananalysisofbusinesstranslationfromtheperspectiveofSkopostheory,aimingatexploringappropriateapproachestothisspecializedarea.Followingthetheoreticalanalysis,therearecasestudiesforfurtherillustrationofthefeasibilityofthistheory.1.2TheessenceoftranslationasviewedbywesterntheoristsTranslationcanberoughlydefinedasareproductionorrecreationinonelanguageofwhatissaidorwritteninanother.Itisaverycomplicatedhumanactivityanditsessenceisnevereasytoclarify.Scholarswithdifferentacademicbackgroundshaveattemptedtoexploreitfromdifferentperspectives.Thefollowingarethemajorschoolsofthoughtontheessenceoftranslation. 1.2.1ThelinguisticschoolThelinguisticschoolconsiderstranslationasalinguisticactivityanddescribestheessenceoftranslationfromtheviewpointofthelinguisticdifferencebetweenthesourcetextandthetargettext.Therepresentativestatementsarequotedbelow.Translationtheoryderivesfromcomparativelinguistics,andwithinlinguistics,itismainlyanaspectofsemantics;allquestionsofsemanticsrelatetotranslationtheory(Newmark,1988:5).Translationconsistsinreproducinginthereceptorlanguagetheclosestnaturalequivalentofthesource-languagemessage,firstlyintermsofmeaningandsecondlyintermsofstyle(Nida&Taber,1969:12).Translationmaybedefinedasthereplacementoftextualmaterialinonelanguage(thesourcelanguage)byequivalenttextualmaterialinanotherlanguage(thetargetlanguage)(Catford,1965:20).Insemantictranslation,thetranslatorattempts,withinthebaresyntacticandsemanticconstraintsoftheTL,toreproducetheprecisecontextualmeaningoftheauthor,i.e.,toreproducetheoriginalformascloselyastheTLnormswillallow(Newmark,1982:22). Insemantictranslation,greaterattentionispaidtorendertheauthor’soriginalthought-processesinthetargetlanguagethantoattempttore-interpretthesourcetextinawaywhichthetranslatorconsidersmoreappropriateforthetargetsetting(Shuttleworth&Cowie,1997:151).1.2.2TheculturalschoolTheculturalschoolemphasizestherenderingofculturalmessagesandregardstranslationasanactofinterculturalcommunication.Themostinfluentialstatementsarepresentedbelow.Thetranslationprocesscannolongerbeenvisagedasbeingbetweentwolanguagesbutbetweentwoculturesinvolving“cross-culturaltransfer”(Snell-Hornby,1992).Translationmusttakeplacewithinaframeworkofculture(Bassnett,1991).Themediatingroleoftranslationismorethansynchronictransferofmeaningacrosscultures;itmediatesdiachronicallyaswellinmultiplehistoricaltraditions(Gentzler,1993). Translationtheoristsarebeginningtoseethetranslatorasamediatorbetweencultures.Atthesametime,theprocessoftranslationisnowbeingunderstoodasanexercise,notonlyinunderstandingtext,butinunderstandingculturalframes(Katan,2004).Culturaltranslationreferstoanytranslationwhichissensitivetocultureaswellaslinguisticfactors.SuchsensitivitymighttaketheformeitherofpresentingTLrecipientswithatransparenttextwhichinformsthemaboutelementsofthesourceculture,oroffindingtargetitemswhichmayinsomewaybeconsideredtobeculturally‘equivalent’totheSLitemstheyaretranslating(Koller,2003).1.2.3ThefunctionalschoolThefunctionalschoolconsiderstranslationasaspecificformofhumanactionwithacertainpurpose,akindoflinguisticserviceprovidedtothesociety.Thetranslatorshouldtakeintoaccounttheneedsofthereaderandthepurposeoftranslation.Itisnotthesourcetext,oritseffectsonthesource-textrecipient,orthefunctionassignedtoitbytheauthor,thatdeterminesthetranslationprocess,buttheprospectivefunctionorpurposeofthetargettextas determinedbytheneedsoftheinitiator,i.e.theclient(Baker,2001:236).ThetheoryofSkopostobediscussedinthispaperbelongstothefunctionalschool.Detailswillbegiventoitinthefollowingchapters.1.3TranslationcriteriaputforwardbyChinesetranslatorsortranslationtheoristsThehistoryofChinesetranslatingpracticecanbetracedbacktoasearlyasZhouDynasty,whichbegantosetupofficialtranslation.Afterwards,thereemergedfourmajorstagesoftranslation,eachofwhichbroughtaboutacertainclimax.Thefirststage:fromEasternHanDynastytoTangandSongDynastiesThesecondstage:MingandQingDynastiesThethirdstage:fromtheOpiumWartoMay4thMovementThefourthstage:fromtheinitiationofthecampaignofreformandopening-upuntilnowAlthoughthetranslationofBuddhistscripturesproducedquiteanumberofgreattranslatorslikeDao’aninEasternJinDynastyandXuanZanginTangDynasty,bothofwhomputforwardsomeprinciplesfortranslation,yetitisgenerallyacceptedthattheoreticalstudiesontranslationinChinastartedfromthe“Three-characterGuide”putforthby YanFu,alate-Qing-Dynastyscholarandtranslator.ThefollowingarethemajortheoreticalassertionsontranslationinChina.YanFu’s“Three-characterGuide”:faithfulness,expressivenessandelegance（信、达、雅）(1898).ChenXiying’s“Three-resemblancePrinciple”:resemblanceinform,resemblanceincontentandresemblanceinspirit（形似、意似、神似）(1929).LuXun’stoppriority:Priorityshouldbegiventofaithfulnessevenatthesacrificeofsmoothness（宁信而不顺）(1932).LinYutang’s“TripleCriteria”:faithfulness,smoothnessandbeautifulness（忠实、通顺、美）(1933).XuYuanchong’s“Three-beautyCriteriaforPoetryTranslation”:beautyinform,beautyinsoundandbeautyincontent（形美、音美、意美）(1984).LiuChongde’s“Three-characterAssertion--faithfulness,expressivenessandcloseness（信、达、切）: Tobefaithfultothecontentoftheoriginal（信于内容）;Tobeasexpressiveastheoriginal（达如其分）;Tobeasclosetotheoriginalstyleaspossible（切合风格）(1994).1.4AnintroductiontoSkopostheory1.4.1AbriefaccountofthetheoryTheabovetwosectionsserveasasynopsisofthemostimportantwesternandChinesetheoriesontranslation.Asmostofthetheoriesarebasedonthetranslationofliterary,religiousandscientifictexts,itisonlynaturalthatemphasisisplacedonfaithfulnesstotheoriginalincontent,formandstyle.Preferenceandpriorityaregiventothesourcetext.Itisobviouslytruethatthesetheoriesaresoundandeffectiveinguidingliterary,religiousandscientifictranslation,buttheyseemabitinadequatewhenitcomestobusinesstranslation.ItisundersuchcircumstancesthatSkopostheoryisintroducedintothefieldofbusinesstranslation.Thefunctionalistapproachtotranslationmadeitsdebutduringthe1970sandsoonstoodoutwithitsinnovativepropositions.Skopostheorybeginsbyseeingatranslationasapurposeful“action”.Itgreatlywidenstheresearchfieldoftranslation,whichputstranslationresearchintheframeworkofcross-culturalcommunication,insteadofthenarrowframeworkofsourceandtargettexts,orthetransmissionbetweentwolanguages.Skopostheory,themostimportanttheoryinthefunctionalistapproach,takestheaimoftranslationastheguidingprinciple.Thetheory haswidenedpeople’straditionaleyescopeontranslationmethods.SkopostheorywasputforwardbyHansVermeer,aGermanscholar,inthelate1970s.Nowthetheoryisbeingusedasatechnicalterm,whichmeansthatthepurposeoftranslationdeterminestranslationmethodsandstrategiesthataretobeemployedinordertoproduceafunctionallyadequateresult.Skopostheoryattachesimportancetothefunctionalandsocio-culturalconceptoftranslation.Thetheoryfocusesonthepurposeoftranslationratherthanthesourcetext.Theauthor,accordingtoVermeer,ispartlyorwhollyturnedintoan“offerofinformation”forthetargetaudience.ThestatusofthesourcetextisclearlymuchlowerinSkopostheorythaninothertranslationtheories,especiallytheequivalencetheory.1.4.2TheapplicationofthetheoryinChinaColina(2003:11)hasarguedthatfunctionalisttheoriesoftranslation,specificallySkopostheory,constitutesthemostdescriptivelyandexplanatorilyadequateapproachto“communicativeprofessionaltranslation”todateforvariousreasons.Sincemanyexpertshavebeenworkingontheperfectionandmulti-functionoftranslationtheory,therehasbeenanincreasinginterestinthestudyofSkopostheoryinthelasttwodecades.ItismorethantenyearssincethetheorywasfirstintroducedintoChina,andithasbeen appliedtovariousareasinthefieldoftranslation.Inviewofcharacteristics,businesstranslationshouldbedifferentfromthatofothergenres.Skopostheorydefinestranslationas“acomplexactiondesignedtoachieveaparticularpurpose”(Nord,2001:13).Whiletraditionaltheoriesemphasize“faithfulness”and“equivalence”whichseemtobeinadequateforsatisfyingtheneedsofbusinesstranslation,theintroductionandapplicationofSkopostheorywillsignificantlycontributetotheimprovementofbusinesstranslationinChina.1.5ProblemstobediscussedinthisresearchWiththedeepeningofChina’sreformandthewideningofitsopening-upChina’seconomicandculturalexchangeswiththerestofworldhavebeengrowingmoreandmorefrequentintherecentyears.Ahugenumberofbusinessdocumentshavebeentranslatedandfruitfulresultshavebeenachieved.Theoverallsituationofbusinesstranslationisencouragingbutitisfarfrompleasing,fortheincreaseinquantitydoesnotnecessarilybringaboutanimprovementofthequalityoftranslation.Variouskindsofproblemsremainunsolvedacrossthecountry.Thecausesoftheproblemsarevariableandcomplicated,butmostproblemsareduetothelimitationofbusinesstranslationtheory.Attentionhasbeenpaidtothesourcetextstosuchanextentthatthepurposeoftranslationandtheneedsoftheclientaretotallydisregarded. ThispaperattemptstotakeintoaccountthespecialrequirementsofbusinesstranslationandexploresthepracticalityofSkopostheory.1.6ThestructureofthethesisThethesisbeginswiththeintroductorypart,analyzingtheresearchbackgroundofthisthesis,presentingmajortranslationtheories,andstatingthestructureofthethesisandthesignificanceofthepresentresearch.Thefollowingchaptermakesabriefoverviewofbusinesslanguage,introducingthedefinitionandcharacteristicsofbusinesslanguage,andfocusingonthecriteriaforbusinesstranslation.Chapter3explorestheapplicationofSkopostheorytothetranslationofbusinessdocuments,elaboratingonintratextualandintertextualcoherenceandonculturetransmissionfromtheperspectiveofSkopostheory.Chapter4focusesonthefeasibilityofSkopostheoryforitsdifferentiationfromthatofothergenres.Anumberofspecificcasesareemployedtoprovethefeasibilityandadvantagesofthetheory.Chapter5and6presenttheenlightenmentsfromSkopostheoryandpointoutthelimitationofthetheory.Lastlythepapermakesaconclusionandofferssuggestionsforfuturestudiesonbusinesstranslation. Chapter2AnOverviewofBusinessEnglishandBusinessTranslation2.1BusinessEnglish2.1.1BusinesslanguageandbusinessEnglishBusinesslanguage,asitsnamesuggests,isavarietyoflanguageusedforspecialpurposewithbusinessasitslanguagebackground.Ithasbeendefinedindifferentways,as“thelanguageusedinbusinesscontext”,“thelanguageusedinbusinessactivities”,or“thelanguageforachievingbusinessobjectives”,etc.Allinall,businesslanguageisthelanguagecloselyrelatedtotheperformanceandoperationofbusinessundertakingswhichcomprisemanyfieldssuchasforeigntrade,finance,insurance,tourism,transportation,investmentetc.Theseactivitiesaremainlyconductedthroughaseriesofinternationalbusinessformssuchasnegotiations,internationalconferences,internationalexchangesand co-operations,etc.Asaresultofitswideuseinbusinesscontext,businesslanguagehasbecomeadistinctivelanguagevariety.Eachcountryhasitsownbusinesslanguage,beitRussian,French,ChineseorJapanese,solongasbusinessactivitiesarecarriedoutwithinthenationalboundary.However,withtheworldbecominga“globalvillage”,moreandmorebusinessactivitiesarecarriedoutbeyondnationalboundariesandtheworldeconomyisbeingglobalized.Inordertopromoteinternationaltradeandfacilitatetheformationof“globalizedeconomy”,itishighlynecessaryandevenimminenttouseaunifiedbusinesslanguage.ItispreciselyinthissituationthatbusinessEnglishcameintobeing.Englishisgenerallyregardedasthelanguageforinternationalbusiness.Beingwidelyused,ithasbeenacceptedasthe“universallanguage”andhasbecomethemosteffectivecommunicativetoolwhichlinksbusinesspeopleofdifferenteconomic,politicalandculturalbackgrounds.The“categoryofbusinessEnglish”hasbeendefinedbysomebusinessexperts(notlinguists)aslanguageknowledge,communicationskills,professionalknowledge,managementskillsandculturalawareness,etc.AlthoughbusinessEnglishcanbeseenastheEnglishlanguageintheoverallcontextofinternationalbusiness,itisimpropertoassumethatbusinessEnglishisthecombinationofterminologiesusedinvarious fields.Onthecontrary,businessEnglishhasevolvedintoabranchofESPwithitsownfeatures.2.1.2CharacteristicsofbusinessEnglishAsadistinctivevarietyoftheEnglishlanguage,businessEnglishhasitsowncharacteristics,whicharedisplayedatdifferentlevels,thewordlevel,thesentencelevelandthestylelevel.2.1.2.1AtthewordLevelSimplicitySimpleandshortwordsinsteadoflongcomplicatedonesarepreferablyusedinbusinesscommunication,astheycansignalthesamemeaninginaneffectiveway.Contrastingly,bigwordsmerelymakecommunicationmoreconfusinganddifficulttounderstandratherthanimpressingpeopledeeplyassomeonemightthink.Thefollowinglistshowsthecontrastbetweenshorterwords(usuallyofAnglo-Saxonorigin)ontheleftandlongerwords(usuallyofFrench,LatinorGreekorigin)ontheright.Shorterwordsarenormallypreferredtotheirlongerequivalentsinoralbusinesscommunicationlikenegotiations.Butinwrittendocuments,especiallythoseinvolvinglegalrightsandobligationslikebusinesscontracts,themoreformalwordsarepreferred. WordsofAnglo-SaxonOriginWordsofFrench,LatinorGreekoriginMeaninginChineseheartyCordial诚挚的roomaccommodation房间worldUniverse世界，宇宙bodilyCorporal身体的seeableVisible看得见的believableCredible可信的fightCombat战斗surroundSiege包围warmthenthusiasm热情sadPathetic悲伤的strengthPotency力量friendlyamicable友好的innerInterior内部的answerReply回答buypurchase购买havePossess具有，拥有hideConceal隐藏eatableEdible可以吃的hearableAudible听得见的 flagBanner旗帜struggleBattle斗争standardCriterion标准temporaryephemeral暂时的strongPotent有力的homelydomestic家里的deepprofound深刻的brotherlyFraternal兄弟般的ConsistencyDifferentfromliteraryEnglish,businessEnglishshowsconsistencyinusingterms,avoidingusingdifferentwordstoexpressthesameidea,forthepartnermayfeelconfusedaboutthespeaker’sintention.Forexample,inactualpracticepeopleseldomuse“send”firstandthensubstituteitwithitsequivalents“forward”“dispatch”or“deliver”;neitherdotheyreferto“organization”byusingdifferentwordslike“firm”,“concern”,”business”or“company”,otherwiseitwillleavethelistenerswonderingwhethersomethingelseisintended.DiversityEnglishforbusinesscommunicationisdynamicandvariegated.Itisalwayschangingwithnewwordsandexpressionscreatedorborrowed fromgeneralEnglishbutgivennewmeanings.Insurance,banking,manufacturingandtransportation–everysegmentofthebusinessworldhassomespecialtermsassociatedwithitandisconstantlygeneratingnewtermstoenlargethebusinessvocabulary.Thedevelopmentofeconomyandinternationalrelationshipsinthenewcenturyhavebroughtaboutthevigorousgrowthofbusinesslanguage.Forexample:Trust信托Outstanding欠款未付Euro欧元issueIOUs打白条scalper(炒卖票证的)黄牛tradesurplus贸易盈余defusefinancialrisks化解金融风险lateraleconomicties横向经济联系MarketDiversificationStrategy市场多元化战略2.1.2.2AtthesentencelevelPrecisionAsbusinessalwaysinvolvestwopartieswhoareinmanycaseslegallyboundbybusinessdocuments,firstpriorityshouldbegiventoprecisionjustincaseunexpectedlawsuitarises.Themeaningofallsentencesshouldbeexplicitlyindicatedtoensurethatimportantmessagesgetacrosssothattheotherpartywillnotmisunderstandwhatis conveyed.Forexample，weusuallysay,“Wecanreduceourpriceby2%ifyourorderexceeds5000pieces’’insteadof“Wecanconsiderreducingourpriceifyourorderislargeenough.”Thefuzzywordingoftenleavesloopholesfortheothersidetoexploit.TersenessAnothersyntacticcharacteristicofbusinessEnglishisterseness.Effortsshouldbemadetouseasfewwordsaspossibletoavoidwordystructures.Bycomparingthefollowingcouplesofsentencesbelow,wecanhavesomeideasofhowsentencelengthisdirectlyrelatedtoclarityandintelligibility.1.A:Iwishtoexpressmyheartfeltgratitudetoyouforyourkindcooperation.(Wordy)B:Thankyouforyourcooperation.(Terse)2.A:Incaseyouwouldwishtoschedulethedeliveriesofcertainoralloftheproducts,arrangementsfortheseshipmentsmaybemadebygettingintouchwithanymemberofthisfirm.(Wordy)B:Ifyouwanttoschedulethedeliveryofyourproducts,pleasecontactusforshippingarrangements.(Terse) 3.A:Enclosedherewithpleasefindthethreerecommendationletters.（Wordy）B:Enclosedarethreerecommendationletters.（Terse）4.A:Ihavebeenfullyawareofthesignificanceofmarketsurvey.（Wordy）B:Iunderstandhowcrucialmarketsurveyis.（Terse）Furtherexamplesarepresentedinthefollowinglist:WordyExpressionsTerseEquivalentsunderseparatecoverseparatelypriortobeforeforapriceof$200for$200duringtheyearof2007during2007AlongperiodoftimealongtimeInthecityofShanghaiinShanghaiAtthistimenowforthereasonthatbecause/sinceforthepurposeofforduetothefactthatbecauseInallcasesalways Inmanycasesoften/frequentlyInmostcasesusuallyInsomecasessometimesInduecoursesoonInspiteofthefactthatalthoughIntheeventthatifwithregard/respect/referencetoon/aboutItshouldbepointedoutthatpleasenoticethat2.1.2.3AtthestylisticlevelThelinguisticstyleinbusinesscontexttakesonauniquefeaturedifferentfromthatinothercontextsandoftenhasavitalbearingonthesuccessfuloutcomeofbusinesstransactionsorevents.TactTactmeanstheabilitytodoorsaytherightthingattherighttimewithoutcausingoffenceorupsettingpeople.Inlanguagecommunication,“tact”referstoexplainingthingsinanaccurate,fluentandelegantwaytotheeffectthatitisappropriateforthelistenersanddifferentoccasions.Whetherornotbusinesslanguageisusedappropriatelyconcernsthesuccessofthebusinessprocess.Takecross-culturalnegotiationfor example,itssuccessfulopening,continuationandconclusioninvolveawidediversityoffactorslikeideologicaldifferences,politicalandeconomicalpolicies,valuesandbeliefsetc.Inmostcases,both(orseveral)partiesshowcourtesyandgoodwillinordertostrengthenfriendshipandpromotebusiness.Oneofthemostdecisivefactorsishowtoemploythelanguageproperly,andthismayreflectone’sbelief,outlookandpatternsofbehavior.Beingtactfulconsistsnotmerelyinusingpolitephrases,butmoreimportantly,inshowingconsiderationforothers.Inthefollowingsentence,theword“fold”isusedasaeuphemismfor“failure’’or“collapse”toavoidharm:Youmustalsoknowthatthemarketkeepschanging.Youhavetothinktwiceaboutthatoryouwillfold.FlexibilityFlexibilitymeanstheabilitytoadapttodifferentneedsanddifferentsituations.Changesaretobemadetosuitdifferentoccasions.Regardinglegalaffairs,thestyleofbusinessEnglishcouldberelativelyformal,butinbusinessnegotiations,celebrationsandotherbusinessactivities,thestylemayappeartobecomparativelyinformal.Communicationinbusinesstraditionallyoperatesattheformallevel,becausethetwopartiesarenotacquaintedwitheachotheratthe beginning.Butsometimesformalityisstrainedtotheextentthatitactuallyinterfereswithefficientcommunicationinbusiness.Nowthiskindofstylehasgivenwaytoamoreflexibleandsensitivestyledependingondifferentoccasions.Ashasbeenprovedinmanyactualcases,businesscanbemoresuccessfullydonewithbothsidesshowingenthusiasmforthetransaction.Coldformalnessmaynotfacilitatefriendlycooperationandfurtherbusiness.2.2DifferencebetweenbusinesstranslationandinterpretationOwingtothedifferentformstheytake,interpretation(oraltranslation)andwrittentranslation(hereinafterreferredtosimplyastranslation)areassumedtobetwodifferentkindsofprocesses,thoughbothrefertothesameactofrenderinginatargetlanguagethemeaningofthesourcetext.Bothinterpretationandtranslationinvolvecarefulanalysisofthesense,meaning,andfunctionofaspeechwithinspecificcontextitoccurs,aswellasthewriter’sorthespeaker’sintentioninextra-linguisticaspectofcommunication.Thesignificantdifferenceliesin,asNida(2003:136)haspointedout,thespeedwithwhichaninterpretermustmakedecisions,theenormoustensiontokeepuptherapidflowofspokenlanguage,thebackgroundknowledgenecessaryforinstantrecall,andthewillingnesstoproducesomethingthatmaynotbe“perfect”. Thetwinprofessionshavethesamegoal,actingonthesameprincipleandarebasedonthesametheory.Bothtranslatorsandinterpretersmustbebilingual,bicultural,possessingwiderangeofknowledge,knowingsomethingabouteverything.However,translationconvertsawrittentextintoanotherwrittentext,whileinterpretationconvertsanoralmessageintoitsoralcounterpartinanotherlanguage.Themajordifferencebetweenthetwomayfindexpressioninthefollowingaspects:2.2.1MediumforunderstandingThetranslatorunderstandsthewrittentextbymeansofreadingwhiletheinterpreterunderstandstheoralmessagebymeansoflistening.Thetranslatoruseshiseyesandtheinterpreter,hisearswhenreceivingandunderstandinginformation.Thereforetheinterpreter’sabilityinlisteningcomprehensionplaysavitalroleininterpretation.2.2.2TimeavailabilityThetranslatorhascomparativelysufficienttimeforhistaskascomparedwiththeinterpreter.Thewrittentextisstatic,immutableinitsformandexistinginthepermanentsetting.However,theoralmessageisfleeting,withwordsdisappearinginaninstant.Interpretationisperformedinstantaneouslyandthespeedofsimultaneousinterpretationisabout30timesgreaterthanthatoftranslation.Thetimeavailabilityandthespeedofresponsetakenintoconsideration,interpretationis higher-pressuredandmoredemandingthantranslation.2.2.3OccasionsforoperationThetranslatorworksinprivatewhiletheinterpreterdoeshisjobinpublic,observedbyboththespeakerandthelistener.Translationcanbedonejointlyorprivatelywiththehelpofreferencedataandotherpeople.Interpretationisdoneindependentlyandusuallywithouthelpassuch.Therecipientofthetranslatedtext(thereader)isthevaguegeneralpublic.Therecipientoftheinterpretedmessage(thelistener)isalwaysthere,tobeaddresseddirectly.Asfarasoccasionsforoperationareconcerned,interpretationismoreindependentlyconductedandthusmorestressfulthantranslation.2.2.4UsefulfactorsTogaincompleteandaccuratecomprehension,thetranslatormaymakeuseofthecontextwhereastheinterpretercantakeadvantageofthespeaker’sexpressions,gestures,tones,etc.aswellasthecontext.Inthisrespect,theinterpreterfindshimselfinamoreadvantageouspositionthanthetranslatorinperforminghistask.2.2.5MeaningandformTranslationaimsatstrikingabalancebetweenmeaningandformwhileinterpretationaimsmainlyatconveyingmeaningand,notinfrequently,atpreservingsemanticequivalenceatthesacrificeofform.Meaningisof supremeimportanceinbothtranslationandinterpretation,butevenlessconsiderationisgiventoformininterpretationthanintranslation.2.2.6RegisterdistinctionGenerallyspeaking,thestyleoflanguageinthetranslatedtextismoreformalthanthatintheinterpreteddiscoursethoughexceptionsmayexistasinthecaseoftranslatingacasualwritingwhileinterpretingasolemnspeechatagrandceremony.Lookatthefollowingparagraphwithtwodifferentversions,whichisexcerptedfrom“theSpeechByBritishPrimeMinisterMrs.MargaretThatcherInChina”(ZhangWeiwei,1999:93).Sino-Britishlinkshavemultiplied–political,commercial,educational,cultural,defense,scienceandtechnology.Ourtradehasexpanded,thoughnotasmuchasIshouldlike,ChineseexportstoBritainareincreasingandweshouldliketoseeanincreaseinourexportstoChinaaswellasinthevolumeoftrade.Britishindustryhasbecomemuchmorecompetitiveinthelastyearortwo.ItnowstandsreadytohelpChina’sambitiousmodernizationprogram,especiallyinsectorswhereChinahaddeclaredapriorityinterest.Version1: 英中两国之间的关系已成倍地增加了，在政治，商务，教育，文化，国防科技等各方面都是这样。我们的贸易扩大了，虽然还不像我希望的那样大。中国对我国的出口增加了，我们希望我国对中国的出口也能增加，双方的贸易额也能扩大。英国的工业竞争力已大大加强了，在过去的一两年中大大加强了。英国现已准备好帮助中国实现雄心勃勃的现代化计划，特别在中国已经宣布的重点领域。Version2:英中两国之间在政治，教育，文化，国防和科技方面的联系成倍增加。我们的贸易业已扩大，尽管还不尽如人意。贵国对英国的出口正在增加。我们希望我国对贵国的出口以及两国之间的总贸易额也将增加。英国在过去一两年的竞争力已大为增强，并乐意帮助贵国实现雄心勃勃的现代化计划，特别在贵国已经宣布的重点领域。Comparedwitheachother,thetwoversionstakeonquitedistinctivelinguisticfeatures.Stylistically,Version1ismorecommunicativeinthechoiceofwordswhileVersion2ismoreformal.Forexample,“China”isputinto“贵国”insteadof“中国”and“thoughnotasmuchasIshouldlike”into“虽然还不像我希望的那样大”insteadof“尽管还不尽如人意”.Andfromthesyntacticlevel,thesentencesinVersion2arearrangedinamorereasonableandlogicalway.Totakethefirstsentenceforexample,Version2ismoreinconformitywiththeChinesesyntacticstructure,whereasVersion1isorallyorganizedwithunnecessary repetitionbecauseofthetimelimitationandotherfactors.2.3RequirementsforsuccessfulbusinesstranslationBusinesstranslationisademandingprofession.Competenceindoingitcanbeacquiredthroughtrainingorself-instruction.Apartfromtheguidanceofapropertheorywhichwillbediscussedinmoredetaillaterinthepaper,thefollowingrequirementsarenecessary.2.3.1TobebilingualtoacertainextentAtranslatorisrequiredtobebilingualtoacertainextent,i.e.tohaveagoodcommandofboththesourcelanguageandthetargetlanguage.Hisunderstandingofthesourcetextmustbeaccurateandhisrenderinginthetargetlanguagemustbegrammaticallycorrect,logicallysoundandrhetoricallyacceptable.Acontrastivestudyofthetwolanguagesisnecessaryforthetranslatortodevelopaninter-lingualawarenessofthedifferencesbetweenthetwolanguages.Thefollowingexamples(Version1)showthelackofinter-lingualawareness:1)Theimportanceofaccuratetermsinthecontractcannotbeoveremphasized.Version1：合同中术语准确的重要性不能过分强调。(Wrong）Version2:必须十分强调合同文本中准确运用术语的重要性。 （合同文本中准确运用术语的重要性怎么强调都不为过分。）1)总经理建议出口部接受这份报盘。Version1：ThemanagingdirectorsuggestedtheExportDepartmenttoaccepttheoffer.(Wrong）Version2：ThemanagingdirectorsuggestedthattheExportDepartment(should)accepttheoffer.2.3.2TobebiculturaltoacertainextentAqualifiedtranslatorshouldbenotonlybilingualbutalsobiculturaltoacertainextent.Atranslatormustlearntoreadbetweenthelinesandbeabletosensewhatispurposelyleftimplicitinthesourcetextandwhatcanandshouldbemadeexplicitinthetargettext.Indoingso,hemustcultivatehisinter-culturalawarenessbyreadingwidely.Thefollowingexample(Version1)showsthelackofinter-culturalawareness:史密斯经理先生，我略备水酒，敬请今晚光临寒舍一叙。Version1:ManagerSmith,Ihavepreparedsomeordinarywineandrespectfullyrequestyourpresenceatthedinnerinmyhumblehousethisevening.(improper)Version2：Mr.Smith,Iwouldlikeyoutocomeovertodinnerthiseveningifitisconvenientforyou. 2.3.3TohaveadequateknowledgeofbusinesssubjectsTodobusinesstranslationsuccessfully,thetranslatormusthaveasmuchbusinessknowledgeaspossible.Asbusinesscoverswidefieldssuchastrade,transport,insurance,banking,accounting,financeandinternationallaw,thetranslatormustkeeplearningandtrytoknow“somethingabouteverything”.Thegreaterthetranslator’sknowledgeofthesubjectmatterinvolvedintranslation,thelessdifficultthecomprehensionofthesourcetext,andthemoreaccuratetherepresentationinthetargetlanguage.Thefollowingexamplesshowthelackofknowledgeofsubjectmatter:Accountbalance帐户平衡（帐户结余）Specialdrawingright特别收回的权利（特别提款权）Absolutecontract绝对合同（不附加条件的合同）Balanceofpayment付款平衡（国际收支平衡）Appreciatedcurrency受欢迎的货币（增值货币）2.3.4TogetacquaintedwithtranslationtheoriesandskillsAdequateknowledgeoftranslationtheoriesandskills,whetherChineseorforeign,guidesthetranslator’spracticeandenhancesthetranslator’sunderstandingofthenatureoftranslation.Themasteryof translationskillsmayhelptoimprovethespeedandqualityoftranslation.Inordertoacquirethoseskills,thetranslatormusthaveabundantpractice,summarizethesuccessandfailuresofhisexperienceandbecomemoreandmorecompetentandefficientindoingtranslation. Chapter3EssentialsofSkoposTheoryandTheirImplicationsonBusinessTranslationThestudyofthecharacteristicsofbusinesslanguage,especiallybusinessEnglish,discussedinthepreviouschaptershedssomelightonbusinesstranslation.Yetthestudyaloneisnotsufficientforthetranslationofbusinessdocuments.Allpracticeneedstheguidanceofacertaintheory,businesstranslatingpracticebeingnoexception.ThischapterintendstoillustratetranslationofbusinessdocumentsfromtheperspectiveofSkopostheory.3.1Skoposandfunctionalistapproach3.1.1EarlyadvocatesoffunctionalistapproachTheoryoffunctionalapproachdatedbackto1970sinGermany,anditsrepresentativesareKatharinaReiss,HansJ.Vermeer,JustaHolzManttariandChristianeNord.Earlyin1971,KatharinaReissin“PossibilitiesandLimitationsinTranslationCriticism”,putforwardthattheidealtranslationwouldbetheoneinwhich“theaimintheTLisequivalenceasregardstheconceptualcontent,linguisticformandcommunicativefunctionofaSL”,andregardthistranslationasintegralcommunicativeperformance.Shetriedtocreateatranslationcriticismmodel,whichisbasedonfunctionalrelationshipofthesourcelanguage andthetargetlanguage(ZhangMeifang,2005).Atthesametime,shealsobelievedthatbecauseofthespecificrequirementsoftranslation,itisdifficultandimpossiblefortranslatorstoachieveequivalence,andtranslatorsshouldgiveprioritytothefunctionalcharacteristicsratherthantheprincipleofequivalence.KatharinaReisspointedoutthatthistranslationalfunctionshouldtranscendthestandardofequivalence.Text-typeclassificationssharpenthetranslator'sawarenessoflinguisticmarkersofcommunicativefunctionandfunctionaltranslationunits(Nord,2001:38).3.1.2VermeerandSkoposHansJ.VermeerisgenerallyconsideredasoneoftheupholdersandsupportersoffunctionalisticapproachandthefounderofSkopostheory.Hebrokefromtheshacklesofequivalence,andputforwardthetheoryinhisFrameworkforaGeneralTranslationTheoryin1983.Heconsiderstranslationtobeatypeoftransferwherecommunicativeverbalandnon-verbalsignsaretransferredfromonelanguageintoanother.Translationisthusalsoatypeofhumanaction,aformoftranslationalactionbasedonasourcetext,whichmayconsistofverbaland/ornon-verbalelements.HecallshistheorySkopos,atheoryofpurposefulaction.Accordingtohistheory,“Everytranslationisdirectedatanintendedaudience,andtotranslatemeanstoproduceatextinatarget settingforatargetpurposeandtargetaddresseesintargetcircumstances”(Vermeer,1982:29).Thesourcetextisnolongerthefirstandforemostcriterionforthetranslator’sdecision;itisjustoneofthevarioussourcesofinformationusedbythetranslator.3.1.3LaterdevelopmentoffunctionalisticapproachAftertheinitiationofSkopostheorybyVermeer,JustaHolzManttarimadeafurtherdevelopmentofthetheory,puttingforwardthe“translationalaction”.Hestudiedallthecross-culturaltransformationalforms,focusingontheactionofthetranslationalprocess,rolesofparticipantsandtheenvironmentwhichoccursintheprocessoftranslation.ChristineNordalsomadecontributionstothedevelopmentoffunctionalisticschooloftranslation.InherbookTranslatingasaPurposefulActivity,sheoutlinesthecriticismstoSkopostheoryandrelativefunctionalapproachesandfindsoutthelimitationstotheSkoposmodel.Oneofherviewsconcernstheculture-specificityoftranslationalmodels;theotherhastodowiththerelationshipbetweenthetranslatorandsource-textauthor.ActuallyNord’sassertionsenrichedSkopostheory. 3.2MajorconceptsofSkopostheory3.2.1Three‘purposes’SkoposisaGreekwordfor‘aim’or‘purpose’.AccordingtoSkopostheory,theprimeprincipledetermininganytranslationprocessisthepurpose(Skopos)ofoveralltranslationaction.Therearethreepossiblekindsofpurposesinthefieldoftranslation:1)thegeneralpurposeaimedatbythetranslatorinthetranslationprocess;2)thecommunicativepurposeaimedatbythetargettextinthetargetsituation;3)thepurposeaimedatbyaparticulartranslationstrategyorprocedure.Amongthem,theimportanceofthecommunicativepurposeoftranslationishigherthanthoseoftheothertwopurposes,andthecommunicativepurposeisusuallydeterminedbytheinitiatorsoftranslationalactions.3.2.2‘Purpose’andothersynonymoustermsApartfromthetermSkopos(purpose),Vermeerusesotherrelatedwordssuchas‘aim’,‘intention’and‘function’,butasageneralrule,heconsidersthetechnologicalconcepts‘purpose’,‘aim’,‘intention’and‘function’asequivalent,subsumingthemunderthegenericconceptof Skopos.Nevertheless,Vermeer(1990:93)distinguishedbetween‘aim’and‘purpose’withtheformerbeingdefinedas‘thefinalresultanagentintendstoachievebymeansofanaction’,andthelatteras‘aprovisionalstageintheprocessofattaininganaim’.3.2.3RulesinSkopostheoryAccordingtoSkopostheory,therearemainlythreerulesforensuringthequalityoftranslation.TheyareSkoposrule,coherenceruleandfidelityrule.3.2.3.1SkoposruleSkoposruleisregardedastheprimeprincipledetermininganyprocessoftranslation,whichplacestoppriorityonthepurposesoftheoveralltranslationalaction.AdequacyandequivalencearerequiredinobservingtheSkoposrule.Adequacyreferstothequalitiesofatargettextwithregardtothetranslationbrief,i.e.translationshouldbeadequatetotherequirementsofthebrief.Itisadynamicconceptrelatedtotheprocessoftranslationalactionandreferstothe“goal-orientedselectionofsignsthatareconsideredappropriateforthecommunicativepurposedefinedinthetranslationassignment.”EquivalenceinSkopostheorymeansthatthetargettextservesthesamecommunicativefunctionorfunctionsasthesourcetext,thuspreserving‘invarianceoffunctionbetweensourceand targettexts’.EquivalenceinSkopostheoryisreducedto‘functionalequivalence’onthetextlevel.ItiswhatReiss(1986:166)referstoas‘communicativetranslation’.3.2.3.2CoherenceruleCoherenceruleisalsocalledtheintratextualcoherencebyfunctionalists.Itrequiresthatthetranslatedtextshouldmakesenseinthecommunicativesituationinwhichitisreceived.Itspecifiesthatatranslationshouldbeacceptableinasensethatitiscoherentwiththereceiver’ssituation(ReissandVermeer,1984:113).Therefore,inthetranslatingprocess,thetranslatorshouldtakethetargetcultureintocarefulconsiderationanddosomealterationsinordertomakethetranslationintelligible.Otherwise,thetranslatedtextmayloseitssignificanceandbecomemeaninglessinatargetculture.Being‘coherentwith’issynonymouswithbeing‘partof’thereceiver’ssituation,thatistosay,thetargettextshouldconformtothestandardof‘intratextualcoherence’.Acommunicativeinteractioncanberegardedassuccessfulonlyifthereceiverinterpretsitasbeingcoherentwiththesituation.Inotherwords,thetargettextmustbetranslatedinsuchawaythatthereceivershouldbeabletounderstandit;anditshouldmakesenseinthecommunicativesituationandcultureinwhichitisreceived.Asweseeabove,theviabilityofthebriefdependsonthe circumstancesofthetargetculture,notonthesourcetext,andthesourceisusuallypartofthebrief.Atextismademeaningfulbyitsreceiverandforitsreceiver.Differentreceiversfinddifferentmeaningsinthesamelinguisticmaterialofferedbythetext.Wemightevensaythata‘text’isasmanyastherearereceivers.Vermeer(1982)sumsitupbysayingthatanytextisjustan‘offerofinformation’,fromwhicheachreceiverselectstheitemstheyfindinterestingandimportant.Guidedbythetranslationbrief,thetranslatorselectscertainitemsfromthesource-languageofferofinformationandprocessestheminordertoformanewofferofinformationinthetargetlanguage,fromwhichthetarget-cultureaddresseescaninturnselectwhattheyconsidertobemeaningfulintheirownsituation.3.2.3.3Fidelityrule‘Fidelityrule’,alsoreferredtoasintertextualcoherencerule,specifiesthatintertextualcoherenceshouldexistbetweensourceandtargettextsor,morespecifically,betweenthesourcetextinformationreceivedbythetranslator,theinterpretationthetranslatormakesofthisinformationandtheinformationthatisencodedforthetargettextreceivers.Moreover,theformittakesdependsbothonthetranslator’sinterpretationofthesourcetextandonthetranslationSkopos.Onepossiblekindofintertextualcoherencecouldbeamaximallyfaithful imitationofthesourcetext,whichmaybetheformexpectedinliterarytranslation.Intertextualcoherence(orfidelityrule)isconsideredsubordinatetointratextualcoherence(orcoherencerule),andbotharesubordinatetotheSkoposrule.Thatistosay,iftheSkopos(purposeoftranslation)requiresachangeoffunction,thestandardwillnolongerbeintertextualcoherencewiththesourcetextbutadequacyorappropriatenesswithregardtotheSkopos;andiftheSkopos(purposeoftranslation)demandsintratextualincoherence,thestandardofintratextualcoherenceisnolongervalid.Thisdown-playingofthestatusofthesourcetextisageneralfactofbothSkoposandtranslationalactiontheory.3.3ImplicationsofSkopostheoryontranslation3.3.1Theoverridingroleof‘purpose’intranslationThepurposeoftranslationiswhatcomesfirstandforemostinSkopostheory,anditplaystheoverridingroleinthewholetranslatingprocess.ItisquiteclearthatanimportantadvantageofSkopostheoryisthatitallowsthepossibilityofthesametextbeingtransferredindifferentwaysaccordingtothepurposeofthetargettextandcommissionwhichisgiventothetranslator.InVermeer’swords:WhattheSkoposstatesisthatonemusttranslate,consciouslyandconsistently,inaccordancewithsomeprinciplerespectingthetargettext. Thetheorydoesnotstatewhattheprincipleis:thismustbedecidedseparatelyineachspecificcase.Undersuchcircumstances,thenatureofthetargettextis‘primarilydeterminedbyitspurposeorcommission’andadequacycomestooverrideequivalenceasthemeasureofthetranslationaction.Accordingtothetheory,adequacydescribestherelationsbetweensourcetextandtargettextbecauseofobservingapurposeduringthetranslationprocess.Inotherwords,ifthetargettextfulfillsthepurposeoutlinedbythecommission,itisfunctionallyandcommunicativelyadequate.Thetheoryalsomakesitclearthattranslationisatypeoftransferwherecommunicativeverbalandnon-verbalsignsaretransferredfromonelanguageintoanother,andmeanwhileitisalsoahumanactionwhichis“intentional,purposeful”and“takesplaceinagivensituation”and“inaparticularculturesystem”.3.3.2Thecomplementaryroleof‘loyalty’intranslationThecoreofSkopostheoryisthatthetranslationpurposeplaysthemostimportantroleinatranslationalprocess,or“thetranslationpurposejustifiesthetranslationprocedures”.Butproblemsarisewhenthetranslationpurposeisnotinlinewiththecommunicativeintentionsoftheoriginalauthor.Inthiscase,the‘loyalty’principleputforwardby ChristianeNordservesasacomplementaryroleintranslation,whichcommitsthetranslatorbilaterallytothesourceandthetargetsides.Itreferstotheresponsibilitythetranslatorhastowardthesourcetextproducer,thetargetreceiverandotheragentsinvolvedinatranslationalinteraction.Nordemphasizesthatthetermcannotbemixedupwithfidelityorfaithfulness,conceptsthatusuallyrefertoarelationshipholdingbetweenthesourcetextandthetargettext.InContrast,‘loyalty’isaninterpersonalcategoryreferringtoasocialrelationshipbetweenpeople.‘Loyalty’demandsthatthetranslatorshouldberesponsibleforthetargetreaders,butthisdoesnotmeanthatthetranslatorisalwaysobligedtodoexactlywhatthereadersexpect.Yetatthesametime,thetranslatorshouldalsohaveasenseofmoralresponsibilitynottodeceivehisreaders(Nord,2001:125).3.3.3TheindispensableroleofcultureintranslationAccordingtoSkopostheory,cultureplaysanindispensableroleandhasagreateffectontranslation.Inotherwords,translationiscloselyrelatedtothecultureandhistorywhichdeterminethetranslators’purposeandtranslationalstrategies.Translationbelongstotherangeofstudyonhumanbehavior.“HumanCommunicationiscontrolledbysituation,andsituationisrootedinculturalpractices.”Translationisconditionedbyboththesourcecultureandthetargetculture.Ifthetranslatorcannot properlyunderstandtheculturalmessagesexistinginthesourcelanguagetextandrenderthemappropriatelyinthetargetlanguagetext,thetranslationisboundtoresultin“culturalvacuum”,whichaffectsnotonlythequalityoftranslation,butalsoculturaltransmission,andintermsofSkopostheory,theculturalexpectationsofthetargetreader.FailuresinthetreatmentofculturalmessagesintranslationwillnecessarilybefailuresintherealizationofSkopos,i.e.thepurposeoftranslation.3.4SummaryFromtheaboveexplanationoftheessentialsofSkopostheoryandtheirimplicationsontranslation,wemayviewtheprocessoftranslatingfromthefollowingperspectives:translatingasintentionalinteraction;translatingasinterpersonalinteraction;translatingascommunicativeinteraction;translatingasinterculturalinteraction.Tosumup,Skopostheoryandrelatedfunctionalapproachesopenanewperspectivetobothtranslationstudiesandtranslatingpractice,andviewthetranslatingcourseinamorerealisticandhumanisticway.Beingwellawareofthefactthat“linguisticsalonecannotsolvetheproblemsoftranslation”,advocatesofthisapproachbroadenthefieldoftranslationstudiesandredefinetranslationintermsoftranslationalactionasa complexactiondesignedtoachieveaparticularpurpose.Thesignificanceofthetheoryisunbounded.Chapter4ApplicationofSkoposTheorytoBusinessTranslation4.1FeasibilityoftheapplicationofSkopostheorySkopostheoryisarelativelynewtheoreticalmodeloftranslationwhichmakesabreakthroughintranslationtheories.Thetheoryattachesgreatimportancetothepurposeoftranslation,whichissignificantforbusinesstranslation.Businessactivitiesarehighlypurpose-oriented.Therefore,thetranslationofbusinessdocumentsmustbehighlypurpose-orientedaswell.ThisisinlinewiththeprincipleofSkopostheory.Inorderto produceagoodeffectonbusinesscommunication,itisnecessarytoconsidernotonlythecharacteristicsofbusinesslanguagebutalsothepurposeoftranslationaswell.ThefeasibilityoftheapplicationofSkopostheorytobusinesstranslationcanbeexplainedinthefollowingaspects:4.1.1BusinesstranslationasintentionalinteractionBusinessinteractioncanberegardedasintentionalchangeofastateoftwoormoreagents.Aninteractionisdescribedas‘communicative’whenitiscarriedoutthroughsignsproducedintentionallybyoneagent,usuallyreferredtoasthe‘sender’tothe‘receiver’.Businesstranslationisasimilarcase,withtwoormoreagentswithintentionalactions.Astherearetwoormoreagents,thisactionmusthaveaninteractionprocess.Businesstranslationisanintentionalinteraction,whichaimsatfirstlychanginganexistingstateofaffairs,forexample,changingthesituationinwhichpeople’sinabilitytoknoweachother’slanguagehamperstheircommunicationwithothers.Therefore,theintentionoftranslationisrelevanttothetranslator,moreoften,withtheinitiatorofthetranslationprocess.Skopostheorywellservesasaguidelineinthisrespect.4.1.2BusinesstranslationasinterpersonalinteractionAsbusinesstranslationinvolvestwoormoreagents,thepeopleoragentsintheinteractionhavecertainfunctionsorroles.Alltheserolesare relevanttoeachotherinacomplexnetworkofmutualrelationships.Inthebusinesstranslationprocess,translatorsseldomstartworkoftheirownaccord.Usuallythereshouldbeaclientwhocallsuponatranslatorortranslatorstodotranslationwork.Inthiscase,theclientisreferredtoasan‘initiator’whohasparticularpurposetoaparticulartextandalsohasareceiver.Thisprocessoftranslationthusinvolvesthemainagentsorrolesofinitiator,translatorandreceiver.Thesource-textproducerisalsoinvolvedinthisprocessindirectly.Boththesourcetextandthetargettexthavetheirownreceiverswiththeirrespectivepurposesforthetwotexts.Skopostheorypreciselyemphasizestheprocessofinterpersonalinteraction.4.1.3BusinesstranslationascommunicativeinteractionBusinesstranslationisacommunicativeactionwhichiscarriedoutamongpeopleofdifferentsocialandculturalbackgroundsbymeansofsigns,includingverbalandnon-verbalsigns,associatedwithaconceptormeaningbytheproducer.Thetranslatorisanexpertcommunicatorwhoisatthecrucialcenterofalongchainofcommunicationfromtheoriginalinitiatortotheultimatereceiverofthemessage,andisthussituatedwithinthewidersocialcontext.Inthewholeprocessoftranslation,itneedstotakeaccountoftherelationshipbetweenthetranslatorandtheoriginalwriter,andbetweenthetranslatorandthereader.Business translationisanactionwhichhappensinacomplexsituationofhumanneed,whichforcesthetranslatortoembedthetranslatingactioninthesocialorder.Inordertoobtaintheintendedgoal,theproducerandthereceivermusthavesomekindofagreementsaboutthemeaningofthesignsthroughthecommunicationbetweenthem.Skopostheoryprovidessomerulesfortheprocessofcommunicationregardingbusinesstranslation.4.1.4BusinesstranslationasinterculturalinteractionAsisdiscussedabove,businesstranslationisacommunicativeactioncarriedoutbyusingsignsandsignsareoftenculture-specific.Moreover,businesstranslationtakesplaceindifferentconcretesituationsthatinvolvesmembersofdifferentcultures.TwoAmericananthropologistsAlfredKroeberandClydeKluckhohn(1961)offeradefinitionofcultureasfollows:Cultureconsistsofpatterns,explicitandimplicitofandforbehavioracquiredandtransmittedbysymbols,constitutingthedistinctiveachievementofhumangroups,includingtheirembodimentinartifacts;theessentialcoreofcultureconsistsoftraditional(historicallyderivedandselected)ideasandespeciallytheirattachedvalues.Culturesystemsmay,ontheonehand,beconsideredasproductsofaction,ontheotherhand,asconditioningelementsoffutureaction. Ininterculturalencounters,theindividualisfreetoeitherconformtothebehaviorpatternacceptedinculture,ortobeartheconsequencesofbehaviorthatiscontrarytoculturalexpectations.Thetruthisthatculturesmayhavedifferentconventions,whichmeanstrans-culturaltextproductionmayrequiresubstitutionofelementsofthesourcetextbytheelementsjudgedmoreappropriatetothefunctionofthetargettexttoserve.Nord(2001:25)believesthatlanguageandcultureareinterdependentandtheycanbecombinedtogethertobecalled‘langaculture’whichistreatedasasingleentityandtheculturalboundaryismarkedby‘richpoints’,whicharedifferencesinbehaviorcausingcultureconflictsorcommunicationbreakdownbetweentwocommunitiesincontact.Atranslatorhastobeveryawareofthepossiblecultureconflictsrelevanttoapracticaltranslationtaskbetweenthegroupsorsub-groupsoneithersideofthelanguage-culturebarrier.Skopostheorygivesprominencetopurposesandpurposesareusuallyculture-bound,sothetheoryisparticularlyusefulfordealingwithculturalmessagesinbusinesstranslation.4.2SkopostheoryandtranslatingstrategiesThechoiceoftranslatingstrategiesisusuallydeterminedbytheguidanceofaparticulartheory.Inthefieldofbusinesstranslation,therehasbeenalonghotdebateoverthepropertranslationstrategychosenfor thetransmissionofculturalcontents.Althoughthereseemstohavemanystrategiestosupportbusinesstranslation,itisnotaneasytasktochoosetheproperone.OverChina’slonghistoryoftranslation,thedebatehasbeenprovokedandconductedmainlyonthequestionofwhetherliteraltranslationorfreetranslationshouldbeapplied.Astheargumentoverliteral-versus-free-strategyisdominantlylinguistics-oriented,itisnotrelevanttothetopicunderdiscussion.AsSkopostheoryispurpose-focused,culture-orientedandcommunication-based,anothertwobinaryapproachesaremorerelevanttoourdiscussion,andtheyarethecontrastingstrategiesofdomesticationandforeignization.ThispartaimsatanalyzingthechoiceofdomesticationorforeignizationfromtheperspectiveofSkopostheory.4.2.1Thestrategyofforeignization4.2.1.1Asource-culture-orientedtranslatingstrategyForeignizationmeanstakingthereaderovertotheforeignculture,makinghim/herseetheculturaldifferencesandseekingtoevokeasenseoftheforeign.Foreignizationisasource-culture-orientedtranslatingstrategywhichstrivestopreservetheforeignflavorasmuchaspossibleinordertotransferthesourcecultureintothetargettext.Therefore,iftheinitiatorofthetranslatingtaskistopromotethecultureofthesourcetext,thisstrategyisdefinitelypreferred.Forexample,Mr.YangXianyiand hiswifeacceptedthetaskoftranslatingHonglouMeng,amasterpieceofChineseliteraturein1960s,andtheymainlyadoptedthestrategyofforeignizationbecausetheinitiatorofthetask,i.e.China’sForeignLanguagePress,intendedtospreadandpublicizeChineseculturebypublishinganumberofChineseclassics.ThetitleofthenovelwastranslatedintoADreamofRedMansions.‘怡红院’wasrenderedasHappyRedCourtand‘怡红公子’asHappyRedPrince.InthewholeversionoftheYangs,thecolorword‘红’waspreservedandtranslatedliterally,astheredcolorisassociatedwithcelebration,happinessandgoodluckinChineseculture.Moreover,Agreatnumberofotherculture-loadedwordsandexpressionslike‘龙’，‘凤’，‘神仙’，‘干女儿’，‘三从四德’，‘无米之炊’，‘天有不测风云，人有旦夕祸福’etc.weretreatedthesamewaybyusingthestrategyofforeignization.Theforeignizationstrategyaimsat“registeringthelinguisticandculturaldifferenceoftheforeigntext,sendingthereaderabroad”,definitelyeasestoagreatextentthecultureconflictandpracticestheprincipleof“seekingthecommongroundwhilereservingthedifferences”,whichpromotestheunderstandingbetweenpeopleofdifferentcultures.Foreignizationenablestranslationtoattainthepurposeofspreadingculture-loadedinformation,promotingmutualunderstandingandcommunicationbetweenpeopleofthesourcecultureandthoseoftarget cultureandplayingtheroleasabridgebetweentheoriginalwriterononehandandthetargetreadersontheother.4.2.1.2Thetheoreticalbasisofforeignization4.2.1.2.1ThewesterntheoreticalbasisofforeignizationTheemergenceofforeignizationstrategyresultedfromthechangesofpopularconceptsofthestandardsoftaste,thehabitsofappreciationandthemannersofexpression.Theriseofanewbranchoflinguistics,theaestheticlinguistics,inthetwentiethcenturyexertedinfluencesontherecognitionandunderstandingoftheessenceoftranslationandatthesametimeofferedanewperspectivetothestudyoftranslation.Agreatmanywesterntranslationtheoriesandtheideasofthedeconstructionistsweresignificantandevenhadepoch-makingimpact.Frenchdeconstructionists JacquesDerrida(德里达,1930),oneofthemostcelebratedandnotoriouslydifficultFrenchphilosophersofthelate20thcentury,MichelFoucault(福柯,1926),afamousFrenchthinkerofthetwentiethcenturyandRolandBarthes(罗兰.巴特,1915),aFrenchliterarycriticandphilosopher,treattheproblemoftheessenceoftranslationasthefocusofphilosophy.Intheiropinions,thetranslatabilityshouldbetreatedfromthealtitudeofphilosophyorinotherwords,theessenceoflanguageshouldbetreatedfromtheangleoftranslationtheories.RolandBarthessaid,afterthebirthofthetext,theexistenceoftheauthoris worthless(Theauthorhasdied!),andthereadersintheirreadinggivethemeaningofthetext.Theyputtheirstressontheuncertaintyofthemeaningofthetext,whichisnotdeterminedbythetextitselfbutuptothetranslators(readers).Interestingly,totheFrenchdeconstructionists,theprincipleoffaithfulnessisselectiveandoptionalandthetranslatorsneednotworryaboutanyone’scomplaintsoftheirinfidelity,eventofightbackandtoblamethatitistheoriginalthatisunfaithfultothetranslatedone.Fromthispointofview,thehumorofJ.L.Borges(博尔赫斯,1899),anArgentinapoetandnovelist(Heblamestheunfaithfulnessoftheoriginaltext.)isreasonable.IntheclassicworksofWalterBenjamin(沃尔特·本亚明，1892),aGermanartcritic，TheTaskof theTranslators,hethinkstherelationshipbetweenthetargettextandthesourcetextisakindofcontinuityandrebirthwithoutanyrelationtofaithfulness.Thetextisgivennewsenseafterthetranslation,thatis,togainanewlife.Therefore,todeconstructionists,thetargettextisnotthesubjecttothesourcetextbuttheafterlifeofsourcetext.Translationconcernsnotonlythemeanstotransferthecontentsofthesourcetext,butmoreimportantly,themeansforthesourcetexttoliveon.Theconceptof“intertextuality”(互文性)isemployedtoexplaintherelationshipbetweenthesourcetextandthetargettext.Ithasbeenproposedthatthereisintertextualityinthetext,whichplacesthetranslatorandtheauthorinthesameposition.Theconceptoftranslation“difference”(延异,coinedbyDerrida),whichhas threemeanings,i.e.todistinguish(区分),todefer(延搁)andtospread(散播)isputforwardbyDerridatoshowtheindeterminacyofthemeaningandtheforeignizingprocessoftranslation.Inhisopinion,thedifferenceinsense,syntaxandpronunciationofdifferentlanguagesconstitutesdifferentwaysofexpressionandtranslationistomasterfullyshowthedifferencesinthestrugglebetweensimilarityanddifference.Onlythroughtranslationcanthedifferencesamonglanguagesandthespecificmannersofexpressionofdifferentlanguagesberealized.Inaword,deconstructionistsbelievethatthepurposeoftranslationistoreservethedifferencesratherthanseekingthecommonnessandthevalueofatranslatedtextdependsonthedegreestowhichitreflectsthedifferencesamonglanguages,insteadofthefluencyofarepresentedtext.AntoineBerman(1930,American),LawrenceVenuti(1931,American)andPhilipLewis(1925,American)arestrongadherentstoforeignization.Bermaninsiststhatdomesticationisrace-centrismandistofoolthetargetreadersandproposesthatthegoaloftranslationshouldbeto“maintainalterity”(保持相异性),thatis,thetargettextshouldtrytoreservethealienationofthesourcetext.Venutithinksthatthestrategyofdomesticationcoverstheculturaldifferencesandisakindofhegemony.Headvocatesresistantforeignizationatthecostoffluencyandnocompromisewithreaders,butasksthereaderstoaccepttheforeignculturetorealizethepurposeofcommunication.Lewisputsforwardthe ideaof“abusivetranslation”(虐待翻译),thatis,toresistthetraditionalwayoftranslationthroughabusivetranslation.Inpointofthis,foreignization,asastrategyoftranslation,whichdeliberatelybreakstranslationconventionsbyretainingsomethingoftheforeignnessoftheoriginal,isto“registerthelinguisticandculturaldifferenceoftheforeigntext,andsendingthereaderabroad”.Inconcreteterms,suchastrategywouldentailnotonly“afreedomfromabsoluteobediencetotargetlinguisticandtextualconstraints,butalsotheselectionofanon-fluent,opaquestyleandthedeliberateinclusionofarchaisms”.Foreignizationhasbecomethestrategyoftranslationthatmeetsthecallofthetimeofculturalglobalization,whichenablesChinesereaderstoseethingsabroad,toknowtheworldandtopromotetheexportationofChinesecultureandthesamecaseistruewithwesternreaders.ForeignizationisinlinewithSkopostheoryonlywhenthepurposeoftranslationistoachieveinformationalfidelitybyappropriatewaysoftransplantation.Itisaneffectivestrategyoftranslationifwhatthetranslatorandtheinitiatoroftranslationintendtodoistotransplantthesourcelanguagecultureintothetargetlanguagesettinginordertopromotetheexchangeofculturesandtoencourageculturaltolerance.4.2.1.2.2TheChinesetheoreticalbasisofforeignizationInChina,theideaofforeignizationwasformedaboutonethousand yearsagothoughtheterm“异化”wasusednotlongago.AnancientbookentitledFajuJingxu(《法句经序》)records theargumentabout“faithfulness”and“expressiveness”hasconcernsaboutforeignization.Thetranslationtheoristsatthattimenoticedthehugedifferencesbetweenthesourceandtargetlanguagesandthedifficultiesofexpressiveness.Thestatement“Therearefaithfulwordswithoutelegance,andviceversa”(信言不美，美言不信)highlightedthedifferencebetweenlanguages,andtheassertion“Thebookisnottheendofthelanguage,whilethelanguageisnottheendofmeaning”(书不尽言，言不尽意)impliedtheideaofforeignizationintheprocessoftranslation.Inmoderntimes,manyscholarshaveattachedimportancetotheforeignization.TakeLuXun(1881)foranexample.Headherestorigidfidelityattheexpenseoffluencyexpressions(宁信而不顺),whichis,infact,hisinitiationofforeignization.AndQianZhongshu(1910),whoseproposalof“sublimity”(化境),warnsthetranslatorsofthetracesofartificialityisactuallyastrategytakeninthelightofforeignization.XuYuanchong(1921)whomaintainstheprincipleof“thecompetitionofsuperiority”(优势竞赛论)inviewofthedistinctionbetweendifferentlanguagesandculturesalsoconcernsaboutthestrategyofforeignization.Moreover,thestudyofsociallinguisticsandanthropologyhasmaderapidprogressinChina,whichhelpstorevealthefactthatlanguageisacarrierandthemostimportanttoolofculture,andthattranslationisan inter-culturalactivity.Theveryexistenceofthedifferencesamongculturesisundeniablyobjective.Therefore,toreservesuchkindofdifferencesamongcultures,foreignizationiswellregardedasamainstrategyfortranslation.4.2.1.2.3ThemeritsofforeignizationinpracticeInthebackgroundofculturalglobalization,thefunctionofculturalexchangeintranslationbecomesstrongerandstronger.Theemploymentofforeignizationasatranslationstrategyisbeneficialtotheenrichmentoflanguage,andthespreadandacceptanceofforeigncultures.ItisagoodwayforthetransmissionofChina’sfivethousandyears’civilizationinChinese-foreigntranslationandagoodchancefortheChinesepeopletoseetheoutsideworldobjectivelyandabsorbgoodthingsfromotherculturesinforeign-Chinesetranslation.Foreignizationrequiresthattranslationshouldcarryalongtheelementsofthesourcetextwithdistinctiveculturaltraits,soitinevitablyresultsinthecreationofsomenewformsofexpressionandculture-specificexpressions,differentfromthemothertongue.Infact,languageasanimportantcarrierofcultureisseldomself-sufficientandnotcompletelyisolatedfromoutsideelements.Onthecontrary,languageasanopensystemhastheabilitytotolerateandabsorbforeignelements.Intheever-deepenedcommunicationamongnationsandpeoples, differentculturesaremergingwitheachother,shapingandinfluencingeachother,andthuspromoteeachone’sdevelopment.Thankstotheimportantroleplayedbyforeignizationinthisprocess,everylanguageisenrichedtodifferentdegrees.Forexample,inChinese,therearemanyimportedexpressionslike“可口可乐”(CocaCola),“基因”(gene),“咖啡”(coffee),“因特网”(Internet),“模特儿”(model),“巧克力”(chocklate),“酸葡萄”(sourgrapes),“象牙塔”(ivorytower),“鳄鱼的眼泪”(crocodiletears),“黑色幽默”(blackhumor),“一石二鸟”(killingtwobirdswithonestone),“肥皂剧”(soapopera),“伊甸园”(thegardenofEden)andsoon;inEnglish,thereareborrowedexpressionslike“taijiquan”(太极拳),“KongFu”(功夫),“typhoon”(台风),“toufu”(豆腐),“jiaozi”(饺子),“tao”(道),“yinyang”(阴阳),and“toloseface”(丢脸),etc.Thesesuccessfulexamplesofforeignizationshowthatforeignizationbreaksthelimitsoftimeandspace,andplaysanessentialpartinculturalexchange.Throughforeignizationthetranslatorsimportmanynewwordswithdistinctiveforeignflavorswhicharegraduallyacceptedbythepublicandextensivelyused.Someexamplesofforeignizedtranslationaregivenasfollows.(1)大锅饭Version1:theequalitariandistributionsystemVersion2:thebigpotsystem(foreignizedtranslation) (2)Godblessyou!Version1:菩萨保佑!Version2:上帝保佑!(foreignizedtranslation)Obviously,theaboveexamplesof‘version2’showtheadoptionofforeignizationstrategyinbothC-EandE-Ctranslation,whichhelpstoreservetheoriginalflavorofthesource-textcultureandenablesthetarget-culturereadertoentertheforeignculture,gettoknowthedifferencesandthusrealizethegoalofinterculturalcommunication.4.2.1.2.4ThedemeritsofforeignizationinpracticeAsChineseandEnglishbelongtoentirelydifferentlanguagefamilies,namely,theSino-TibetanfamilyandtheIndo-Europeanfamily,theforeignizationstrategyshouldbeemployedtoacertaindegree.Ifcarriedtoofar,itislikelytocausesuchproblemsassuperficiality(浅化),unauthenticforeignizationorbeingmerelyexoticonthesurface(囫囵吞枣的异化)andthesituationpointedbyYanFu,inwhich‘althoughitistranslated,itseemstobenot’(虽译犹不译).Thefollowingexampleisacaseinpoint.(3)Therewasnopossibilityoftakingawalkthatday.Wehadbeen wandering,indeed,intheleaflessshrubberyanhourinthemorning;butsincedinner(Mrs.Reed,whentherewasnocompany,dinedearly)thecoldwinterwindhadbroughtwithitcloudssosomber,andrainsopenetrating,thatfurtheroutdoorexercisewasoutofthequestion.(JaneEyre,Chapter1)Version1:那一天是不能出门散步的了。当天的早上，我们在那已经落叶的小丛树堆里溜过有一点钟了；不料饭后（李特太太，没得客人来，吃饭是早的，）刮起各大的寒风，满天都是乌云。又落雨，是绝不能出门运动的了。Version2:那一天是没有散步的可能了。不错，早晨我们已经在无叶的丛林中漫游过一点钟了，但是午饭之后--在没有客人的时候，里德夫人是早早吃饭的——寒冷的冬风刮来这样阴沉的云，和这样侵人的雨，再做户外运动是不可能的了。ThesuperficialityofVersion1isobvious.OnlythesurfacemeaningofthesourcetextisexpressedinChinesewithoutcreativity.Foreignizationiscarriedtoanextreme.ThetranslatorofVersion2apparentlyhastheconceptofthewholenessandharmonyinmind.HetakesadvantageofthemeritsofChinesetoachievetheeffectof“harmoniousdifference”（和而不同）bygraspingthedeepermeaningof thesentenceintheculturalcontextofthetargetlanguage,whichdisplaysthetranslator’sartisticrecreationandrealizesoptimization.Thetranslatorshouldnotbeblindintherealizationofforeignizationandignorethestrategyofdomestication.Theunderstandingandexpressionintranslationisuncertain.Asthesayinggoesinthewest,“Wordsdonothavemeanings,andpeoplehavemeaningforwords”.Withtheunderstandingandrecreationofthetranslator,thetargetlanguageshouldseektheharmonyintheacceptanceandresistancebetweentwolanguagesandcultures.Everythinghastwosides,andthecaseisthesamewithforeignization,whichhasitsmeritsanddemerits.Ononehand,themeritsofforeignizationshouldbefullymadeuseofintheinter-culturalcommunication;ontheotherhand,itisveryimportanttoovercomeitsdemerits.Thekeyliesinthetranslators’skillfulmasteryofthedegreeofappropriateforeignizationandhissenseofharmoniouswholeness.4.2.1.2.4TipsontheemploymentofforeignizationForeignizationcanbesaidtobetheconflictandcontactbetweentwolanguagesandtwocultures.Whenaworkistranslatedintoanotherlanguage,thetargetlanguagecanbesuperficialwithheavy“translationese”,whichishardtounderstand.Anditcanbethebeautifulandfamiliarmothertonguewithsometasteofalienation,whichgivesthe readersrefreshingjoylikethecaressingwindinthedawn.Theprincipleofharmonyisadvocated,andforeignnessshouldbecontainedinharmony.Theever-widenedinternationalculturalexchangeshortensthedistancebetweendifferentcultures.Therefore,toappropriatelyincreasetheemploymentofforeignization,notonlyinfusesnewbloodintothelocalculture,butalsopromotesitsexportationabroadtoachievethepurposeofinter-culturalexchangeandspeedsuptheprocessofculturalglobalization.Cultureisaverycomplexconceptandanenormoussubject,whichalmostembraceseverythingintheworld,materialorspiritual.Foreignizationisahardandcreativetranslationstrategy.Itmeetstheneedofculturalforgingandthepurposeofinter-culturalcommunication.However,theemphasisonforeignizationshouldnotbecarriedtoanextreme,andacceptabilityofthetargettextshouldalsobetakenintoconsideration.Therightwayistokeeptheculturalconnotationofthesourcetexttosuchadegreethatforeignizationcanstillbeacceptableintermsofitslinguisticforms.Inthefinalanalysis,theemploymentofthestrategyofforeignizationmustbeconductedundertheguidanceofSkopostheory,thatis,itmustbedeterminedbythepurposesoftranslation,thepurposesoftheinitiator,thetranslatorandthereaderaswell.Ifthepurposeofpromotingthesource-textcultureistobetakenintoaccount,thestrategy offoreignizationisusedmoreinthetranslationofliteraryworksandsocio-politicalessaysthanofbusinessdocuments.4.2.2Thestrategyofdomestication4.2.2.1Atarget-culture-orientedstrategyDomesticationmeansconvertingtheSLculturetotheTLcultureandnaturalizingallrenditionsaccordingtotheTLnorm.Demesticationisatarget-culture-orientedtranslationstrategy,bywhichunusualexpressionstothetarget-culturereaderareturnedintoidiomaticandnaturalonessoastomakethetranslatedtextintelligibleandeasyforthetargetreader.Asdomesticationpaysmoreattentiontothetargetaudience,andculture-loadedsentencesandexpressionsareadaptedandmadeeasyandsmooth,sometimesthetargetreadersmaynotrealizethattheyareactuallyreadingatranslatedtextfromanotherculture.4.2.2.2ContrastbetweendomesticationandforeignizationDomesticationandforeignizationaretwodifferenttranslationstrategies.Theformerreferstothestrategyinwhichatransparent,fluentstyleisadoptedinordertominimizethestrangenessoftheforeigntextforthetargetreader,whilethelatterdesignatesthetypeoftranslationinwhichatargettextdeliberatelybreaktargetconventionsbyretainingsomethingoftheforeignnessoftheoriginal.WithintheframeworkofSkopostheory,foreignizationand domesticationmaynotcontradicteachother,judgingfromthenewfunctionalistperspective.Sinceatranslationgenerallyinvolvesvariouspurposes,differentstrategieshavetobetakeninordertoachieveeachofthem.Thefunctionalisttheorycanprovideguidanceforthetranslatortodecidewhichstrategyismoresuitabletoemployinaspecifictranslationalaction.Thefunctionalisttheoryrequiresthatthecommissionerortheinitiatorshouldofferthetranslatormuchdetailedinformationconcerningtheactionsuchastheintendedfunctionsandtheaddresseesofthetargettextatthebeginningsothatthetranslatormaydecideonthespecificstrategytobechosen.Takingallthesefactorsintocarefulconsideration,thetranslatorcangivepreferencetoeitherforeignizationordomestication.4.2.2.3RelationshipbetweendomesticationandbusinesstranslationAccordingtoSkopostheory,translationisapurposefulactivity,thatis,toproduceatextinatargetsettingforatargetpurposeandtargetaddresseesintargetcircumstances.Unlikethetranslationofliteraryworksandsocio-politicalessays,whosemainpurposeistopublicizeandpromotethesource-textculture,thepurposeofthetranslationofbusinessdocumentsistoendeavortomakethedocumentsacceptabletothetargetreaderssothatatrademarkcanattractthetargetreceiver,anadvertisementcancapturetheattentionofthetargetcustomer,aproduct canbelaunchedintothetargetmarket,andmostimportantly,abusinesstransactioncanbeconcludedwiththetargetclient.Withthistarget-orientedpurposetakenintofullaccountandwiththetargetreceiverandtargetcircumstancesalwaysinmind,thetranslatorofbusinessdocumentsnecessarilygivespreferenceandprioritytotheadoptionofdomesticationstrategyindoingtranslation.Ifthetranslatorfailstodoso,graveconsequencesmayarise:businesscommunicationbreaksdown;trademarksaredisfavored;productsarerejected;contractsareterminatedandbusinesstransactionsarecancelled.4.2.2.4ApplicationofdomesticationtobusinesstranslationAsstatedabove,domesticationstrategyispreferredandprioritizedinbusinessdocumenttranslation.Itisusedinvariouskindsofbusinesstranslation.Thefollowingarepartoftheexamples.4.2.2.4.1ApplicationofdomesticationtotrademarktranslationUnsuccessfulorineffectivetranslationoftrademarksThefollowingaresomeunsuccessfulorineffectivetranslationoftrademarks.Theirfailureresultsfromtoomuchattentionpaidtofidelitytotheoriginalformattheexpenseofacceptabilityonthepartofthereader.Theproblemcouldbeovercomeifdomesticationstrategyisemployed.Thespecificreasonsfortheirfailurearegiveninthenotes. 白翎牌钢笔WhiteFeatherPenNote:‘Showthewhitefeather’means‘runawaywhenthebattlebegins’(临阵脱逃).白象牌电池WhiteelephantCellNote:‘Whiteelephant’meansuseless(毫无用处)inEnglish.金鸡牌挂钟GoldCockWallClockNote:Theword‘cock’hasgotavulgar(鄙俗)meaning.东风牌农机EastWindFarmMachineNote:‘EastWind’isassociatedwithcoldness,aridity,destruction,etc.五羊牌自行车Five-GoatBicycleNote:‘Goat’isderogatory,associatedwithsexualactiveness(好色之徒).蜜蜂牌香皂BeeToiletSoapNote:Therearetinyhairsonabee’sbody.(蜜蜂身上有小绒毛，引起不舒服联想。)西湖牌藕粉WestLakeLotusRootStarchNote:‘Starch’Maychangeintofat(使人联想到发胖).马戏牌扑克MaxiPukeNote:‘Maxi’means‘thelargestamount’and‘Puke’means‘vomit’(使人联想到大量呕吐).轻身减肥片ObesityReducingTabletNote:‘Obesity’means‘beingunhealthilyfat’(伤害购买者的自尊心).芳芳牌口红FangFangLipstickNote:‘Fang’means‘alongsharptoothofananimal,suchasadogorapoisonoussnake’(毒牙).Goldlion(男子服饰)金狮Note:“金狮”谐音“金失”、“今死”，现名“金利来”。Head&Shoulder（洗发液）海伦仙度丝Note:“海伦仙度丝”太长，且使人觉得不知所云，现名“海飞丝”。HewlettPackardCo.（电子仪器、电脑公司）休利特-帕卡特公司 Note:“休利特-帕卡特公司”太长，且没有任何意义，现名“惠普公司”。“Toshiba,Toshiba,大家的东芝”（公司歌曲）Note:谐音“偷去吧，偷去吧，大家的东西。”SuccessfultranslationoftrademarksAllthefollowingtranslationsaresuccessfulbecausetheyareinconformitywiththetargetcultureandacceptableandevenpleasingtothetargetreceivers.CocaCola(饮料)可口可乐Sprite(饮料)雪碧Lacov(饮料)乐口福Robust(饮料)乐百氏Jiant(自行车）捷安特Mercedes-Benz(轿车）奔驰Fiyta(意大利轿车）飞亚达BMW(德国汽车公司）宝马Lexus(丰田豪华车）凌志Peugeot(法国汽车）标致Nike(运动鞋)耐克Canon(照相机）佳能Safeguard(香皂）舒肤佳Lucky(胶卷）乐凯Star(电脑）实达 Xerox(美国复印机）施乐Goodrich(美国橡胶轮胎公司）固特立P&G(Proctor&Gamble)宝洁公司KENT(Kisseverneverteach)（美国香烟）健牌美加净(牙膏）Maxam杜康（酒）Bacchus（希腊酒神）联想集团LenovoLegend+Novo(拉丁词根,”新意,创新”的意思)4.2.2.4.2ApplicationofdomesticationtobulletintranslationInallthefollowingexamples,thedomesticatedversionsarepreferablebecausetheyaretailoredtothetargetsettingandsuitthetargetreaderbetter.Servicesasusual.服务照常。照常营业。(domesticatedversion)Pleasecheckyourchangebeforeleavingthecheckoutarea.请在离开付款处之前核查一下你的零钱。请当面点清。(domesticatedversion) Offerissubjecttoavailability.优惠以有货为限。现货优惠，售完为止。(domesticatedversion)Customercareisourtoppriority.关心顾客是我们最优先考虑的事。顾客至上。(domesticatedversion)安全出口，保持通畅。Safetyexit,keepthoroughfare.Fireescape,keepclear.(domesticatedversion)未经许可，不得入内。Noadmittanceunlessyouarepermitted.Nounauthorizedentry.(domesticatedversion)油漆未干！Thepaintisnotdried.Wetpaint!(domesticatedversion)请勿践踏草坪！ Pleasedon’ttreadonthegrass.Keepoffthegrass!(domesticatedversion)4.2.2.4.3ApplicationofdomesticationtoadvertisingtranslationAlltheadvertisementsbelowareruntoattracttheChinesecustomerssothattherelativeproductsmayappealtotheChinesemarket.TheSkopos(purpose)oftranslationisclearlydefined.Therefore,thedomesticationstrategyshouldbeappliedsoastomaketheversionsappealingtotheChinesereaders.Asthereareusuallysomerhetoricaldevicesinadvertisements,whicharenotnecessarilyparalleledbytheChinesecounterparts,thetranslatorshouldbeflexibleincreatingcorrespondingdeviceswhicharefamiliarandentertainingtotheChinesereaders.Ineachofthefollowingexamples,thedomesticatedversionseemsmoreattractive.1)Weareproudofthebirthplacesofourchildren,thegrapesofAlmaden.（葡萄酒公司广告）我们为孩子们的出生地而感到自豪——艾尔马登的葡萄酒。孩子使母亲感到自豪；艾尔马登葡萄是我们的骄傲。(Domesticatedversion)2)Mygoodness.MyGuinness.（啤酒公司广告） 我的天哪，格尼斯啤酒。我的天哪，格尼斯啤酒在哪？(Domesticatedversion)1)Sophisticatedsweet-to-drinkPinkLady.（酿酒公司广告）高级、可口的粉红佳人。高级可口味甘醇；酒仙迷上红佳人。(Domesticatedversion)2)MomsdependonCool-Aidlikekidsdependonmoms.（饮料公司广告）妈咪依赖酷泉可乐，就像孩子依赖妈咪。孩子离不开妈咪片刻；妈咪离不开酷泉可乐。(Domesticatedversion)5)Flash.Dash.Classicsplash.（饮料公司广告）闪光、炫耀、经典的飞溅。闪光、荣光、飞溅的水珠之光。(Domesticatedversion)6）YouarebetteroffundertheUmbrella.（保险公司广告）你在大伞下更安全。大伞之下能保险，出门自在又安全。(Domesticatedversion)7）Makeupyourmindbeforeyoumakeupyourface. （化妆品公司广告）化妆前慎用化妆品。要想脸俏丽，赶紧拿主意。(Domesticatedversion)8）FlowersfromInterfloraspeakfromtheheart.（花卉公司广告）英特芙萝的鲜花是发自内心的表达。鲜花倾诉衷肠；英特芙萝闪亮登场。(Domesticatedversion)9）WeareMoresatisfied.（“摩尔”牌香烟公司广告）我们更加满意。“摩尔”又添新意，我们更加满意。(Domesticatedversion)“摩尔”香烟，魔力无限。(Domesticatedversion)4.3SummaryThefeasibilityoftheapplicationofSkopostheorytobusinesstranslationcanbeexplainedbyviewingitasintentionalinteraction,interpersonalinteraction,communicativeinteractionandinter-culturalinteraction.TheSkopos(purpose)oftranslationhasdirectandvitalbearingonthechoiceoftranslationstrategy.Ifthepurposeissource-text-basedandoriginal-writer-oriented,thestrategyofforeignizationispreferable;butifthepurposeistarget-text-basedand target-reader-oriented,thestrategyofdomesticationshouldbegivenpriority.AstexttypeisoftenassociatedwithSkopos,itinfluencesthechoiceofstrategyaswell.Generallyspeaking,foreignizationismoreusedintranslatingliteraryworksandsocio-politicalessayswhiledomesticationfindsitswaytothetranslationofbusinessdocumentsandotherbusiness-relatedtexts. Chapter5SomeEnlightenmentsfromSkoposStudies5.1Skopos(purpose)asthetoppriorityintranslationalactionFromtheabove-mentionedexamplesinchapter4,wecanseethattheusefulnessandfeasibilityofSkopostheory.Skopostheoryisamorefunctionalistandsocio-culturalapproachtotranslation.Translationisconsiderednotsimplyasatext-processingactivity,butasaspecificformofhumanaction.Asallhumanactionsarepurpose-orientedwithtranslationbeingnoexception,Skoposholdsadominantpositionintranslatingpractice,especiallyinbusinesstranslation.Intheframeworkofthistheory,oneofthemostimportantfactorsdeterminingthepurposeofatranslationistheaddressee,whoistheintendedreceiveroraudienceofthetargettext.Everytranslationisdirectedatanintendedaudience.Thetheoryfocusesaboveallonthepurposeofthetranslation,whichdeterminesthetranslationmethodsandstrategiesthataretobeemployedinordertoproduceafunctionallyadequateresult.Thetranslator,accordingtoVermeer,isan“offererofinformation”forthetargetaudience.Fromthisview,thestatusofthesourceisclearlymuchlowerinSkopostheorythanthatintheequivalencetheory.Tosomeextent,Skopostheoryprovidesanewprospectfortranslatorsandmoreoverfullplayhasbeengiventothe“bridge”betweenthereadersandauthor. Skopostheoryisthemostimportanttheoryinthefunctionalistapproach.Skopostheorytakestheaimastheguidingprinciple,examiningtranslationintheframeofactiontheoryandcross-culturalcommunication,makinganewwayforthetranslationdomain.AnyactionhasitsownSkopos.Theaimoftranslatingdeterminesthecorrespondingstrategiesandmethods.SkoposruleholdsthattheSkoposofaparticulartranslatingtaskdetermineswhichstrategyshouldbetaken,foreignization,domesticationoracombinedone.Asdiscussedinpreviouschapters,twoprinciplesaboutSkopostheoryareintratextualcoherenceandintertextualcoherence.Theintratextualcoherenceruledemandsthattranslationshouldconformtotheprinciplesofthetargetlanguage,makingitintelligibletothetargetlanguagereaders,meaningfulinthetargetlanguagecultureandthecommunicativesituationwheretranslationisused.Theintertextualcoherencereferstothefidelityrule,demandingthattranslationshouldcorrespondwiththeoriginal,althoughnotnecessarilybeexactlytheequivalent.Theextentandformoffidelityaredeterminedbytheaimoftranslationandtheunderstandingoftheoriginalbythetranslator.5.2BusinesstranslationasgovernedbySkoposBusinessisaspecialhumanactivity.Itisoftendescribedfromdifferentperspectives: Businessisaboldgamble.Businessisawin-winactivity.Businessisaprofitableventure.Businessisagive-and-takeaction.Businessisacredit-basedundertaking.Businessistheprocessofbuyingandselling.Businessisaprofit-makingandbenefit-givingoperation.…Inconclusion,businessmightbedefinedasexchangeofgoodsandservicesbetweentwoparties,involvingrisks,requiringgoodcreditandcooperation,andbenefitingbothifsuccessful.Asbusinessisbothprofit-makingandbenefit-giving,itishighlypragmatic,concernedwithpracticalresults.Therefore,businesstranslationmustbehighlypragmaticaswell,withprioritygiventoachievingaparticularbusinesspurpose.Inthisregard,Skopostheoryisahighlyrelevantandusefultheoryforbusinesstranslation,andbusinesstranslationshouldbegovernedbySkopostheory,orientedbythepurposesoftheinitiator,thewriterandthetranslatorwiththeacceptabilityofthereader,i.e.thebusinesspartner,alwayskeptinmind.Thisfunctionalisttheoryhasprovidedanew perspectivefortranslationstudies.Thistheoryisapplicableandbeneficialtothetranslationofalltypesoftexts,businessdocumentsandotherbusiness-relatedtextsinparticular.5.3TranslatingstrategiesasdeterminedbySkoposAsstatedrepeatedlyinthepreviouschapters,translation,asaformofhumanaction,mustbeorientedlikeanyotherformsofhumanactionbycertainpurposeorpurposes.Intranslatingpractice,whichstrategyistobechosenshouldnotbedeterminedbythetextitselforthetranslatorhimself/herself,butshouldbemainlydecidedbythepurpose(s)oftranslation.Inaword,thepurposeisthemostimportantfactorfordeterminingthespecificstrategyandmethodoftranslation.Thispurpose-orientedapproachtotranslatingstrategyisoneofthecentralideasofSkopostheory.TwotranslationstrategiesshouldmeetwiththerequirementsofSkopostheory.Ifatranslationisintendedtowidenthetargetaddressees’visionsandtointroducethesourcecultureintothetargetculture,thetranslatormaychooseforeignization.Inthisway,thesourceculturecanbetransferredintothetargetcultureandfurtherenrichthetargetcultureaswellasthetargetlanguage.However,thisstrategyisnotsuitableinallcircumstances.Culturalfaithfulnessshouldnotbeacquiredattheexpenseofavaguebrokenlanguage,resultinginmiscomprehensionofthereader orlackofreadabilityofthetargettext.Thereforetranslatorshouldalsotakedemesticationintoconsiderationwhenemployingtheforeignizingstrategy.Contrastingly,iftheSkoposistoprovideasmoothtranslationwithoutmanydifficultiesforcommonreaders,domesticatingmethodshouldbetaken.Itwillovercometheculturebarriersaswellasthelanguageonesandprovideaneasyreading.Thenthemostimportanttaskforthetranslatoristoeliminatetheculturalconflicts,whichmaybetheobstaclesincommunicationandresultinmisunderstanding.Itisalsothetranslators’jobtobeawareoftheconnotationsofsomeculturalelementsinthesourcetextandmakesomeadaptationintranslation.Thussuccessfulcommunicationcanbeachieved.Butthedomesticatingstrategyhasitslimitations,too.Sometimesitmaynotbesuitablesinceatranslationshouldretainsomethingforeignandexotic.Ifitlosesallthecharacteristicsofatranslation,itmayalsoloseitsattraction.Therefore,bothstrategieshavetheirstrengthsandtheirweaknessesaswell.EachofthemisfarfrombeingabletoserveallpurposesandcanonlybetakentoreachdifferentSkoposdesignedbytranslationbrief.Therelationshipbetweenforeignizationanddomesticationisinfactdialecticalandcomplementary. 5.4TwotranslationstrategiescomplementingeachotherFunctionalisttheoryplacesemphasisontheexpectedfunctionoftextsandtranslations.Inthisway,domesticationandforeignizationarenotonlynotincompatible,butshouldcomplementeachother.Theyarejusttwodifferentstrategiesoftranslation.Weshouldnotcarrythemtoextremes.Domesticationdoesnotmeanthattranslatorscanmakeadaptationsatwill,whileforeignizationdoesnotequalword-for-wordtranslationorstatictranslation.Whatweshoulddoistodrawabalancebetweenthetwo.Choosingonedoesnotnegatetheapplicationofanother.Evenifthetranslatortakesdomesticationasthedominatingstrategyinorderforthetranslationtobeeasilyunderstoodbythereceivers,he/shecanalsoreservetheoriginalimagesconcerningspecificculturallyloadedexpressions;ontheotherhand,evenifthetranslationistopreservetheexoticismtoimportforeignculturesintothetargetlanguage,changesmustbemadeoncertainpointswhichappearquiteunnaturalorevenunacceptedbythetargetreaders.Onthebasisofacomprehensiveanalysisofvariousfactorsinvolvedintranslation,thetranslatorsfollowbothdomesticationandforeignization,andtheycanmakedecisionsontheproblemsofwhichculturalfactorsintheoriginalshouldbereservedandhowtoreservethem,whichfactorsshouldbeadaptedsoastobeacceptedinthetargetcultureandwhatshouldbetheextentoftheadaptation. Thereisnopointinsayingthatonestrategyisbetterthantheother.Eachisgoodandeffectivesolongasitcanservetheintendedfunctionofthetextinthetargetlanguage.5.5ThecommunicativepurposeasthemajorSkoposAccordingtoSkopostheory,theprimeprincipledetermininganytranslationprocessisthepurpose(Skopos)ofoveralltranslationaction.TheSkopos(purposes)initiatedinthetheorymayincludethegeneralpurposeaimedatbythetranslatorinthetranslationprocess,thecommunicativepurposeaimedatbythetargettextinthetargetsituation,thepurposeaimedatbyaparticulartranslationstrategyorprocedure.Amongthethreepurposes,thecommunicativepurposeoftranslationisconsideredasthemajorSkopos,moreimportantthantheothertwopurposes.Thecommunicativepurposeisusuallydeterminedbytheinitiatorsoftranslationalactions.TheSkopostheorybelievesthattheinitiatorofthetranslationprocessdecidesthepurposeofcommunication,andtheinitiatorwouldgivereasonsfortheneedoftranslationandthefunctionaswellasdetailsrelatingtotherequiredtypeoftranslation.Inthemeantime,thetranslatorhastherighttodiscussthepurposewiththeinitiatorandthendecidesonatranslationstrategyoracombinationofdifferentstrategies.. 5.6ThereceiveroftranslationasadecisivefactorDifferentparticipantsoftranslationplaydifferentroles,amongwhomtheintendedTLreceiverisofutmostimportance.ThisiswhyintheframeworkofVermeer’stheory,oneofthemostimportantfactorsdeterminingthepurposeofatranslationistheaddressee,whoistheintendedreceiveroraudienceoftheTLwiththeirculture-specificworld-knowledge,theirexpectationsandtheircommunicativeneeds.Everytranslationisdirectedatanintendedaudience,sincetotranslatemeans“toproduceatextinatargetsettingforatargetpurposeandtargetaddresseesintargetcircumstances”(1987:a:29).Atextismademeaningfulbyitsreceiverandforitsreceiver.Differentreceiversoreventhesamereceiveratdifferenttimesfindsdifferentmeaningsinthesamelinguisticmaterialofferedbythetext.Whatthetranslatorcando,andshoulddo,istoproduceatextthatisatleastlikelytobemeaningfultotarget-culturereceivers. Chapter6Conclusion:SignificanceandLimitationsofSkoposTheory6.1ThesignificanceofSkopostheory6.1.1SkopostheoryasaguidingprincipleinbusinesstranslationAsisanalyzedinChapter4,businessactivitiesarehighlypurpose-oriented.AndithasvalidatedthefeasibilityofSkopostheorytobusinesstranslation.Therefore,thetranslationofbusinessdocumentsmustbehighlypurpose-orientedaswell.ThisisexactlyinlinewiththeprinciplesofSkopostheory.Inordertoproduceagoodeffectonbusinesscommunication,itisnecessarytoconsidernotonlythecharacteristicsofbusinesslanguagebutalsothepurposeoftranslationaswell.Therefore,skopostheoryishighlyapplicabletobusinesstranslation.Thiscanbeexplainedbyviewingbusinesstranslationasintentionalinteraction,interpersonalinteraction,interculturalinteractionandcommunicativeinteraction.Alltheseformsofinteractionarecontrolledandguidedbyapurposeorseveralpurposes.Skopostheorygivesprominencetotheimportanceofpurposesandpurposesareusuallyculture-boundandcommunication-focused,sothetheoryisparticularlyusefulfordealingwithculturalmessagesandcommunicativeeffectsinbusinesstranslation. 6.1.2SkopostheoryasadecisivefactorinformingtranslationapproachesAccordingtoSkopostheory,businesstranslationmayhavethreekindsofapproachestochoosefromwiththerequirementofspecificpurposes.Theyareadaptingapproach,borrowingapproachandcreatingapproach,whichcanbeusedinthreedifferentsituations.InC-Ebusinesstranslationforexample,ifsimilarbusinesstermsexistinEnglish,adaptingapproachmightbeapplied.IfthecorrespondingEnglishequivalentscanbefound,borrowingapproachisapplicable.Astosomebusinesstermsuniqueinonelanguageandcultureonlyandabsentintheotherlanguageandculture,thetranslatorneed,accordingtothepurposeofthetargettext,createproperexpressions.(1)AdaptingApproachThetranslationapproachshouldbedeterminedbytheintendedpurposeorfunctionofatranslationaccordingtoSkopostheory.Ifthepurposeofthetranslationistokeepthefunctionofthetextinvariant,businesstranslatorsoftenhavetoadapttotargetculturestandards.ItmeansthatthetranslatormaymakeaslightchangewhichisbasedonthesimilarexpressionsinEnglish.Itcanguidethetranslatortomakeflexibletargetlanguagechoiceswhenrenderingculture-specificexpressions.Hischoicesmustbepredictedtobeacceptabletohistargetreaders. Examples:Servicesasusual.Byusingadaptingapproach,“服务照常”(literaltranslation)isslightlychangedto“照常营业”toadapttothetarget(Chinese)setting.Customercareisourtoppriority.Similarly,“关心顾客是我们最优先考虑的事”(literaltranslation)ischangedto“顾客至上”,amorecustomaryexpressionintheChinesebusinessenvironment.(2)BorrowingApproachBorrowingapproachisappliedwhencorrespondingexpressionscanbefound.Theborrowingapproachishighlypracticalandrealisticinbusinesstranslation.Basedontheapproach,conventionalbusinessexpressionscouldbeborrowedsothattheysoundfamiliarandacceptabletothetargetreadersExamples:Offerissubjecttoavailability.现货优惠，售完为止。Therendering“优惠以有货为限”obviouslysoundsexoticandunnaturaltotheChinesereaders.Thecorrespondingexpression“ 现货优惠，售完为止”ismuchmoreacceptable.安全出口，保持通畅。Fireescape,keepclear.ThesameistruewithC-Etranslation.“Safetyexit,keepthoroughfare”soundsabitstrangeandunnaturaltotheEnglish-speakingreaders.Instead,“Fireescape,keepclear”isamorecustomaryexpressiontothem.(3)CreatingApproachIntheprocessoftranslation,itisinevitablethatwewillmeetwithcertainsituationinwhichwefinditdifficulttogetaproperexpressionforconveyingtheinformationinthesourcetext.Whenperformingthetranslationoftheculture-specificexpressionspeculiaronlytothesourceculture,thetranslatormustadoptcreatingapproach.Thatis,thetranslatorshouldcreatecertaintermswhentherearenoconventionalexpressionstoborroworsimilarexpressionstoadaptfromthetargetlanguageExample:WeareMoresatisfied.“摩尔”香烟，魔力无限。Moreisahomonym,i.e.awordthathasboththesamesoundand spellingasanotherbutisdifferentinmeaning.Here,itisbothabrandnameofcigaretteandthecomparative-degreeformofthewordmuch.ThecleveruseofthehomonyminEnglishproducesaveryvividandimpressiveeffect.Butthereisobviouslynoequivalent,similarorcorrespondingexpressioninChinese.Thetranslatorcreativelyrendersitas“摩尔”香烟，魔力无限byusingahomophone‘魔’,thatis,awordthatsoundsthesameas‘摩’butisdifferentinmeaning,ratherthanhomonymwhichislackinginChinese.6.1.3Skopostheory’simpactonthechoiceoftranslationstrategyTheSkopos(purpose)oftranslationhasdirectandvitalbearingonthechoiceoftranslationstrategy.Inthispaper,someantitheticalstrategiessuchasliteralversusfreestrategies,semanticversuscommunicativestrategies,andword-for-wordversusrewritingstrategiesareputaside,andfocusislaidonthecontrastbetweenforeignizationanddomesticationstrategies.Ifthepurposeisbasedonthesourcetextandorientstowardstheoriginalwriter,thestrategyofforeignizationispreferable;butifthepurposeisbasedonthetargettextandorientedtowardsthetargetreader,thestrategyofdomesticationshouldbegivenpreference.AstexttypeisoftenassociatedwithSkopos,itinfluencesthechoiceofstrategyaswell.Generallyspeaking,foreignizationismoreusedintranslatingliteraryworksandsocio-politicalessayswhile domesticationismoreemployedinthetranslationofbusinessdocumentsandotherbusiness-relatedtexts.ThecontrastismainlyexemplifiedinChapterfour.6.1.4SkopostheoryofferingabasisforcreativetranslationSkopostheoryoffersatheoreticalbasisforcreativetranslation.Weknowfromthetheorythatinthecourseoftranslating,thetranslatordevelopshissubjectivitywhenheinterpretstheoriginalutterancesasareaderandresearcher,andproducesthemasasubstitutefortheauthorandre-creator.Thetranslator’slinguisticchoicesandpragmatictranslationstrategiesmustfocusonconveyingtheauthor’sintentionswithoutputtingtheaudiencetounnecessaryprocessingeffortinachievingthecontextualeffortsintheinterpretationintendedbytheauthor.InaccordancewithSkopostheory,thetranslatormusthandletworelationships,therelationshipbetweenthetargettextanditsaudienceandtherelationshipbetweenthetargettextandthecorrespondingsourcetext.Ontheonehand,atranslationmaybeintendedforperformingthecommunicativefunction.Ontheotherhand,atranslationisakindoftarget-culturerepresentationorsubstituteforasource-culturetext.Assuch,itmaycarryoutquitedifferentfunctionswithregardtothesourcetext.Therefore,thetranslatorhastotakeintoconsiderationthepurposesofthewriter,theinitiator,thereaderaswellashisown,whichrequires thegreatabilitytostrikeabalanceanddoeffectivetranslationbybringinghiscreativityintofullplay.6.2ThelimitationsofSkopostheoryInthefunctionalist-approachtheorieswithSkopostheoryastherepresentative,thetop-rankingruleforanytranslationisthe“Skoposrule”,whichholdsthatatranslationactionisdeterminedbyitsSkopos.AconsistentclaimamongfunctionaltranslationresearchersisthatSkoposisthedeterminingfactorintranslation.However,theyfailtoshowhowaSkoposeffectsthetranslationprocessorappearsinatranslatedtext.Moreover,thegivenexamplesdonotexplainunderwhichactualSkoposthetranslationhasbeenrendered,sothatuntilnow,translatorsandstudentsdonotexactlyknowforwhatpurposeaSkoposispositionedwithinthetranslationprocessandtowhichresultsitleads.IfwewantSkopostobeausefultermintranslationscience,thefollowingrequirementshavetobefulfilled:Takingthetranslationcommissionasastartingpoint,wehavetofindouthowSkoposisrelatedtoitandwhetherthetranslationcommissionhasalreadybeenregardedasaSkopos.TheminimuminformationneededtodetermineaSkopos,whichgovernsatargettextneedstobespecified.ItneedstobeknownhowSkoposcanbeintegratedintoexistingmethods.Thisstepisnecessary.Onthebasisoftheseconsiderations,researchesshouldbeundertakento defineSkoposbyasetofparametersinordertomakeit‘operative’.BeingoperativemeansthatitwillbepossibletoderiveclearinstructionsfromtheSkoposonhowtocreateatextservingagivenpurpose.Atranslationpurposethusdefinedcanthenbeinterfacedwithexistingmethods.Withtheemergenceofthefunctionalistapproachintranslationtheory,forthefirsttimeextra-linguisticandtextualfactorslikethe‘client’,the‘recipient’sculture’andespeciallythe‘purpose’ofatextbecamethefocusofattentionintranslation.Thesefactorswereconsideredtobeofgreatimportanceforatranslator’sdecisionswhencreatingatargettext.Asthefunctionalistapproach,especiallyVermeer’sso-calledSkopostheory,tookpracticalexperienceoftranslationprofessionalsintoaccount,anewmovementintranslationtheorywasestablished.However,thenewtheoryisnotmatureyet,problemwiththetechnicaltermSkoposisthatVermeer(1992:90)refersittotheactoftranslatingaswellastothetranslationresultandalsotothetranslationmode.HealsousesthetermSkopossynonymouslywith“function”,butdifferentlyfromtheunderstandingofhisco-authorReiss,whouses“function”inrelationtothesourcetext(1971).Asaconsequence,laterscholarsusedthetermwhenwritingeitherabouttranslationaction,aboutthetranslationresultoraboutthetranslationmode.Whatisconfusingisthatthemajorityofthefunctionaliststakethiskindofindefinitetermfor granted.Thereareonlyafewfair,contentandmethodologyorientatedcriticsonSkopostheory’sweakpoints.Anotherproblemoffunctionalliteratureuptonowisthattheyalllacka‘scientific’methodology.InspiteofallgoodeffortsmadebytheadvocatesofSkopostheory,itisnotclearfromthepointofviewofastudentwhatexactly–stepbystep-hastobedoneduringthetranslationprocess.Besides,whatistheexactdefinitionof“function”,ifitdoesnothavethesamemeaningasSkopos,veryoftenfunctionalistsusethistermsynonymouslywithSkopos,alsointhesenseoftheoriginalauthor’sintentionandfinallyasatermreflectingthereader’sexpectation.Theconfusionofthemeaningoftheterm“function”hascausedsomedifficultyandyetleftsomeroomforthefurtherstudyofSkopostheory.Thereisnoendtotheimprovementoftranslation.Owingtotheauthor’slackofexperienceinthisfield,mistakesanddisputablepointsmayarise.However,Ihopemypreliminaryexplorationinthisfieldwillcontributetothefulfillmentofthegiganticandmeaningfultask. 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学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下进行的研究工作所取得的成果。尽我所知，除文中已经特别注明引用的内容和致谢的地方外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式注明并表示感谢。本人完全意识到本声明的法律结果由本人承担。学位论文作者（本人签名）：年月日学位论文出版授权书本人及导师完全同意《中国博士学位论文全文数据库出版章程》、《中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库出版章程》(以下简称“章程”)，愿意将本人的学位论文提交“中国学术期刊（光盘版）电子杂志社”在《中国博士学位论文全文数据库》、《中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库》中全文发表和以电子、网络形式公开出版，并同意编入CNKI《中国知识资源总库》，在《中国博硕士学位论文评价数据库》中使用和在互联网上传播，同意按“章程”规定享受相关权益。论文密级：□公开□保密（___年__月至__年__月）(保密的学位论文在解密后应遵守此协议)作者签名：_______导师签名：______________年_____月_____日_______年_____月_____日 独创声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的毕业设计(论文)，是本人在指导老师的指导下，独立进行研究工作所取得的成果，成果不存在知识产权争议。尽我所知，除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本设计（论文）不含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的作品成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体均已在文中以明确方式标明。本声明的法律后果由本人承担。 作者签名:二〇一〇年九月二十日 毕业设计（论文）使用授权声明本人完全了解滨州学院关于收集、保存、使用毕业设计（论文）的规定。本人愿意按照学校要求提交学位论文的印刷本和电子版，同意学校保存学位论文的印刷本和电子版，或采用影印、数字化或其它复制手段保存设计（论文）；同意学校在不以营利为目的的前提下，建立目录检索与阅览服务系统，公布设计（论文）的部分或全部内容，允许他人依法合理使用。（保密论文在解密后遵守此规定） 作者签名:二〇一〇年九月二十日 致谢时间飞逝，大学的学习生活很快就要过去，在这四年的学习生活中，收获了很多，而这些成绩的取得是和一直关心帮助我的人分不开的。首先非常感谢学校开设这个课题，为本人日后从事计算机方面的工作提供了经验，奠定了基础。本次毕业设计大概持续了半年，现在终于到结尾了。本次毕业设计是对我大学四年学习下来最好的检验。经过这次毕业设计，我的能力有了很大的提高，比如操作能力、分析问题的能力、合作精神、严谨的工作作风等方方面面都有很大的进步。这期间凝聚了很多人的心血，在此我表示由衷的感谢。没有他们的帮助，我将无法顺利完成这次设计。首先，我要特别感谢我的知道郭谦功老师对我的悉心指导，在我的论文书写及设计过程中给了我大量的帮助和指导，为我理清了设计思路和操作方法，并对我所做的课题提出了有效的改进方案。郭谦功老师渊博的知识、严谨的作风和诲人不倦的态度给我留下了深刻的印象。从他身上，我学到了许多能受益终生的东西。再次对周巍老师表示衷心的感谢。其次，我要感谢大学四年中所有的任课老师和辅导员在学习期间对我的严格要求，感谢他们对我学习上和生活上的帮助，使我了解了许多专业知识和为人的道理，能够在今后的生活道路上有继续奋斗的力量。另外，我还要感谢大学四年和我一起走过的同学朋友对我的关心与支持，与他们一起学习、生活，让我在大学期间生活的很充实，给我留下了很多难忘的回忆。最后，我要感谢我的父母对我的关系和理解，如果没有他们在我的学习生涯中的无私奉献和默默支持，我将无法顺利完成今天的学业。四年的大学生活就快走入尾声，我们的校园生活就要划上句号，心中是无尽的难舍与眷恋。从这里走出，对我的人生来说，将是踏上一个新的征程，要把所学的知识应用到实际工作中去。回首四年，取得了些许成绩，生活中有快乐也有艰辛。感谢老师四年来对我孜孜不倦的教诲，对我成长的关心和爱护。学友情深，情同兄妹。四年的风风雨雨，我们一同走过，充满着关爱，给我留下了值得珍藏的最美好的记忆。在我的十几年求学历程里，离不开父母的鼓励和支持，是他们辛勤的劳作，无私的付出，为我创造良好的学习条件，我才能顺利完成完成学业，感激他们一直以来对我的抚养与培育。最后，我要特别感谢我的导师赵达睿老师、和研究生助教熊伟丽老师。是他们在我毕业的最后关头给了我们巨大的帮助与鼓励，给了我很多解决问题的思路，在此表示衷心的感激。老师们认真负责的工作态度，严谨的治学精神和深厚的理论水平都使我收益匪浅。他无论在理论上还是在实践中，都给与我很大的帮助，使我得到不少的提高这对于我以后的工作和学习都有一种巨大的帮助，感谢他耐心的辅导。在论文的撰写过程中老师们给予我很大的帮助，帮助解决了不少的难点，使得论文能够及时完成，这里一并表示真诚的感谢。 毕业设计（论文）原创性声明和使用授权说明原创性声明本人郑重承诺：所呈交的毕业设计（论文），是我个人在指导教师的指导下进行的研究工作及取得的成果。尽我所知，除文中特别加以标注和致谢的地方外，不包含其他人或组织已经发表或公布过的研究成果，也不包含我为获得及其它教育机构的学位或学历而使用过的材料。对本研究提供过帮助和做出过贡献的个人或集体，均已在文中作了明确的说明并表示了谢意。作者签名：　　　　　日　期：　　　　　指导教师签名：　　　　　日　　期：　　　　　使用授权说明本人完全了解大学关于收集、保存、使用毕业设计（论文）的规定，即：按照学校要求提交毕业设计（论文）的印刷本和电子版本；学校有权保存毕业设计（论文）的印刷本和电子版，并提供目录检索与阅览服务；学校可以采用影印、缩印、数字化或其它复制手段保存论文；在不以赢利为目的前提下，学校可以公布论文的部分或全部内容。作者签名：　　　　　日　期：　　　　　 学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的论文是本人在导师的指导下独立进行研究所取得的研究成果。除了文中特别加以标注引用的内容外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写的成果作品。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式标明。本人完全意识到本声明的法律后果由本人承担。作者签名：日期：年月日学位论文版权使用授权书本学位论文作者完全了解学校有关保留、使用学位论文的规定，同意学校保留并向国家有关部门或机构送交论文的复印件和电子版，允许论文被查阅和借阅。本人授权　　　　大学可以将本学位论文的全部或部分内容编入有关数据库进行检索，可以采用影印、缩印或扫描等复制手段保存和汇编本学位论文。涉密论文按学校规定处理。作者签名：日期：年月日导师签名：日期：年月日 指导教师评阅书指导教师评价：一、撰写（设计）过程1、学生在论文（设计）过程中的治学态度、工作精神□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、学生掌握专业知识、技能的扎实程度□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、学生综合运用所学知识和专业技能分析和解决问题的能力□优□良□中□及格□不及格4、研究方法的科学性；技术线路的可行性；设计方案的合理性□优□良□中□及格□不及格5、完成毕业论文（设计）期间的出勤情况□优□良□中□及格□不及格二、论文（设计）质量1、论文（设计）的整体结构是否符合撰写规范？□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、是否完成指定的论文（设计）任务（包括装订及附件）？□优□良□中□及格□不及格三、论文（设计）水平1、论文（设计）的理论意义或对解决实际问题的指导意义□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、论文的观念是否有新意？设计是否有创意？□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、论文（设计说明书）所体现的整体水平□优□良□中□及格□不及格建议成绩：□优□良□中□及格□不及格（在所选等级前的□内画“√”）指导教师：（签名）单位：（盖章）年月日 评阅教师评阅书评阅教师评价：一、论文（设计）质量1、论文（设计）的整体结构是否符合撰写规范？□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、是否完成指定的论文（设计）任务（包括装订及附件）？□优□良□中□及格□不及格二、论文（设计）水平1、论文（设计）的理论意义或对解决实际问题的指导意义□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、论文的观念是否有新意？设计是否有创意？□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、论文（设计说明书）所体现的整体水平□优□良□中□及格□不及格建议成绩：□优□良□中□及格□不及格（在所选等级前的□内画“√”）评阅教师：（签名）单位：（盖章）年月日 教研室（或答辩小组）及教学系意见教研室（或答辩小组）评价：一、答辩过程1、毕业论文（设计）的基本要点和见解的叙述情况□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、对答辩问题的反应、理解、表达情况□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、学生答辩过程中的精神状态□优□良□中□及格□不及格二、论文（设计）质量1、论文（设计）的整体结构是否符合撰写规范？□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、是否完成指定的论文（设计）任务（包括装订及附件）？□优□良□中□及格□不及格三、论文（设计）水平1、论文（设计）的理论意义或对解决实际问题的指导意义□优□良□中□及格□不及格2、论文的观念是否有新意？设计是否有创意？□优□良□中□及格□不及格3、论文（设计说明书）所体现的整体水平□优□良□中□及格□不及格评定成绩：□优□良□中□及格□不及格（在所选等级前的□内画“√”）教研室主任（或答辩小组组长）：（签名）年月日教学系意见：系主任：（签名）年月日11 学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的学位论文，是本人在导师的指导下进行的研究工作所取得的成果。尽我所知，除文中已经特别注明引用的内容和致谢的地方外，本论文不包含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的研究成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体，均已在文中以明确方式注明并表示感谢。本人完全意识到本声明的法律结果由本人承担。学位论文作者（本人签名）：年月日学位论文出版授权书本人及导师完全同意《中国博士学位论文全文数据库出版章程》、《中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库出版章程》(以下简称“章程”)，愿意将本人的学位论文提交“中国学术期刊（光盘版）电子杂志社”在《中国博士学位论文全文数据库》、《中国优秀硕士学位论文全文数据库》中全文发表和以电子、网络形式公开出版，并同意编入****《中国知识资源总库》，在《中国博硕士学位论文评价数据库》中使用和在互联网上传播，同意按“章程”规定享受相关权益。论文密级：□公开□保密（___年__月至__年__月）(保密的学位论文在解密后应遵守此协议)作者签名：_______导师签名：______________年_____月_____日_______年_____月_____日11 独创声明本人郑重声明：所呈交的毕业设计(论文)，是本人在指导老师的指导下，独立进行研究工作所取得的成果，成果不存在知识产权争议。尽我所知，除文中已经注明引用的内容外，本设计（论文）不含任何其他个人或集体已经发表或撰写过的作品成果。对本文的研究做出重要贡献的个人和集体均已在文中以明确方式标明。本声明的法律后果由本人承担。 作者签名:二〇一〇年九月二十日 毕业设计（论文）使用授权声明本人完全了解**学院关于收集、保存、使用毕业设计（论文）的规定。本人愿意按照学校要求提交学位论文的印刷本和电子版，同意学校保存学位论文的印刷本和电子版，或采用影印、数字化或其它复制手段保存设计（论文）；同意学校在不以营利为目的的前提下，建立目录检索与阅览服务系统，公布设计（论文）的部分或全部内容，允许他人依法合理使用。（保密论文在解密后遵守此规定） 作者签名:二〇一〇年九月二十日11 致谢时间飞逝，大学的学习生活很快就要过去，在这四年的学习生活中，收获了很多，而这些成绩的取得是和一直关心帮助我的人分不开的。首先非常感谢学校开设这个课题，为本人日后从事计算机方面的工作提供了经验，奠定了基础。本次毕业设计大概持续了半年，现在终于到结尾了。本次毕业设计是对我大学四年学习下来最好的检验。经过这次毕业设计，我的能力有了很大的提高，比如操作能力、分析问题的能力、合作精神、严谨的工作作风等方方面面都有很大的进步。这期间凝聚了很多人的心血，在此我表示由衷的感谢。没有他们的帮助，我将无法顺利完成这次设计。首先，我要特别感谢我的知道***老师对我的悉心指导，在我的论文书写及设计过程中给了我大量的帮助和指导，为我理清了设计思路和操作方法，并对我所做的课题提出了有效的改进方案。***老师渊博的知识、严谨的作风和诲人不倦的态度给我留下了深刻的印象。从他身上，我学到了许多能受益终生的东西。再次对周巍老师表示衷心的感谢。其次，我要感谢大学四年中所有的任课老师和辅导员在学习期间对我的严格要求，感谢他们对我学习上和生活上的帮助，使我了解了许多专业知识和为人的道理，能够在今后的生活道路上有继续奋斗的力量。另外，我还要感谢大学四年和我一起走过的同学朋友对我的关心与支持，与他们一起学习、生活，让我在大学期间生活的很充实，给我留下了很多难忘的回忆。最后，我要感谢我的父母对我的关系和理解，如果没有他们在我的学习生涯中的无私奉献和默默支持，我将无法顺利完成今天的学业。四年的大学生活就快走入尾声，我们的校园生活就要划上句号，心中是无尽的难舍与眷恋。从这里走出，对我的人生来说，将是踏上一个新的征程，要把所学的知识应用到实际工作中去。回首四年，取得了些许成绩，生活中有快乐也有艰辛。感谢老师四年来对我孜孜不倦的教诲，对我成长的关心和爱护。学友情深，情同兄妹。四年的风风雨雨，我们一同走过，充满着关爱，给我留下了值得珍藏的最美好的记忆。在我的十几年求学历程里，离不开父母的鼓励和支持，是他们辛勤的劳作，无私的付出，为我创造良好的学习条件，我才能顺利完成完成学业，感激他们一直以来对我的抚养与培育。最后，我要特别感谢我的导师***老师、和研究生助教***老师。是他们在我毕业的最后关头给了我们巨大的帮助与鼓励，给了我很多解决问题的思路，在此表示衷心的感激。老师们认真负责的工作态度，严谨的治学精神和深厚的理论水平都使我收益匪浅。他无论在理论上还是在实践中，都给与我很大的帮助，使我得到不少的提高这对于我以后的工作和学习都有一种巨大的帮助，感谢他耐心的辅导。在论文的撰写过程中老师们给予我很大的帮助，帮助解决了不少的难点，使得论文能够及时完成，这里一并表示真诚的感谢。11 致谢这次论文的完成，不止是我自己的努力，同时也有老师的指导，同学的帮助，以及那些无私奉献的前辈，正所谓你知道的越多的时候你才发现你知道的越少，通过这次论文，我想我成长了很多，不只是磨练了我的知识厚度，也使我更加确定了我今后的目标：为今后的计算机事业奋斗。在此我要感谢我的指导老师——***老师，感谢您的指导，才让我有了今天这篇论文，您不仅是我的论文导师，也是我人生的导师，谢谢您！我还要感谢我的同学，四年的相处，虽然我未必记得住每分每秒，但是我记得每一个有你们的精彩瞬间，我相信通过大学的历练，我们都已经长大，变成一个有担当，有能力的新时代青年，感谢你们的陪伴，感谢有你们，这篇论文也有你们的功劳，我想毕业不是我们的相处的结束，它是我们更好相处的开头，祝福你们！我也要感谢父母，这是他们给我的，所有的一切；感谢母校，尽管您不以我为荣，但我一直会以我是一名农大人为荣。通过这次毕业设计，我学习了很多新知识，也对很多以前的东西有了更深的记忆与理解。漫漫求学路，过程很快乐。我要感谢信息与管理科学学院的老师，我从他们那里学到了许多珍贵的知识和做人处事的道理，以及科学严谨的学术态度，令我受益良多。同时还要感谢学院给了我一个可以认真学习，天天向上的学习环境和机会。即将结束*大学习生活，我感谢****大学提供了一次在**大接受教育的机会，感谢院校老师的无私教导。感谢各位老师审阅我的论文。本科生毕业设计（论文）规范化要求第一部分学生应遵守以下规范要求一、毕业设计论文说明1.毕业设计论文独立装订成册，内容包括：（1）封面（题目、学生姓名、指导教师姓名等）（2）中、外文内容摘要（3）正文目录（含页码）11 （1）正文（开始计算页码）（2）致谢（3）参考文献（4）附录2.中、外文内容摘要包括：课题来源，主要设计，实验方法，本人主要完成的成果。要求不少于400汉字，并译成外文。3.毕业设计论文页数为45页-50页。4.纸张要求：毕业设计说明书（论文报告）应用标准B5纸单面打字成文。5.文字要求：文字通顺，语言流畅，无错别字。6.图纸要求：毕业设计图纸应使用计算机绘制。图纸尺寸标注应符合国家标准。图纸应按“规范”叠好。7.曲线图表要求：所有曲线、图表、流程图、程序框图、示意图等不得徒手画，必须按国家规定标准或工程要求绘制。8.参考文献、资料要求：参考文献总数论文类不少于10篇、，应有外文参考文献。文献应列出序号、作者、文章题目、期刊名、年份、出版社、出版时间等。二、外文翻译1.完成不少于2万印刷符的外文翻译。译文不少于5千汉字。2.译文内容必须与题目（或专业内容）有关，由指导教师在下达任务书时指定。11 3.译文应于毕业设计中期2月底前完成，交指导教师批改。4.将原文同译文统一印成B5纸规格装订成册，原文在前，译文在后。三、形式审查5月15日前，将毕业设计论文上交指导教师，审查不合格者，不能参加答辩。四、准备答辩答辩前三天，学生要将全部材料（包括光盘、论文）统一交指导教师。关于毕业论文格式的要求为方便统一、规范论文格式，现将学院的相关要求做如下强调、补充：1.基本要求纸型：B5纸（或16开），单面打印；页边距：上2.54cm，下2.54cm，左2.5cm，右2.5cm；页眉：1.5cm，页脚1.75cm，左侧装订正文字体：汉字和标点符号用“宋体”，英文和数字用“TimesNewRoman”，字号小四；图号1-1，指第1章第1个图在图的前部要有文字说明（如图1-1所示）表号3-5，指第3章第5个表在表的前部要有文字说明（如表3-5所示）图、表的标注字体大小是五号宋体行距：固定值20；页码：居中、小五、底部。2.封面格式11 封皮：大连理工大学城市学院（二号、黑体、居中）本科生毕业设计（论文）（二号、黑体、居中）学院：（四号、黑体、居中、下划线：电子与自动化学院）专业：（四号、黑体、居中、下划线、专业名字之间无空格）学生：（四号、黑体、居中、下划线，名字是2个字的中间空1个字、3个或3个以上字的中间无空格）指导教师：（四号、黑体、居中、下划线，名字是2个字的中间空1个字、3个或3个以上字的中间无空格，两位指导教师的中间用顿号“、”）完成日期：（四号、黑体、居中、下划线，如：2009年5月25日）（注意：5个下划线两端也是对齐的，单倍行距）内封：大连理工大学城市学院本科生毕业设计（论文）（四号、黑体）题目（二号、黑体、居中）；总计毕业设计（论文）页（五号、宋体）表格表（五号、宋体）插图幅（五号、宋体）（注意：页数正常不少于40页，优秀论文原则上不少于45页）3.中外文摘要中文摘要：标题“摘要”（三号、黑体、居中、中间空1个字）正文（不少于400字）关键词（五号、黑体）：3-5个主题词（五号），中间用分号“；”隔开。外文摘要（另起一页）：标题“Abstract”（三号、黑体、居中）正文（必须用第三人称）关键词：Keywords（五号、黑体）：3-5个主题词（五号）与中文关键词对应，中间用分号“；”隔开。4.目录标题“目录”（三号、黑体、居中）；章标题（四号、黑体、居左）；11 节标题（小四、宋体）；页码（小四、宋体）；二、三级目录分别缩近1和2个字；四级目录不在“目录”中体现，在正文中也不是单独一行，可以黑体（没有句号），然后空2个字接正文；注意：正文中每章开头要另起一页；“目录”下方中间的页码和摘要一样统一用罗马字，顺接摘要的。摘要目录加页眉5.论文正文页眉：论文题目（居中、小五、黑体）；章标题（三号、黑体、居中）；节标题（四号、黑体、居左）；正文程序用“TimesNewRoman”，字号小四；6.参考文献标题：“参考文献”（小四、黑体、居中）参考文献的著录，按文稿中引用顺序排列，并注意在文内相应位置用上标标注，如：……的函数。示例如下：（字体为五号、宋体）期刊类：[序号]作者1，作者2，……作者n。文章名。期刊名（版本），出版年，卷次（期次）。页次图书类：[序号]作者1，作者2，……作者n。书名。版本。出版地：出版者，出版年。页次会议论文集：[序号]作者1，作者2，……作者n。论文集名。出版地：出版者，出版年。页次网上资料：[序号]作者1，作者2，……作者n。文章名。网址。发表时间7.其它量和单位的使用：必须符合国家标准规定，不得使用已废弃的单位（如高斯(G和Gg)、亩、克分子浓度（M）、当量能度（N）等）。量和单位不用中文名称，而用法定符号表示。图表及公式：插图宽度一般不超过10cm11 ，表名（小四）置上居中，图名（小四）置下居中。标目中物理量的符号用斜体，单位符号用正体，坐标标值线朝里。标值的数字尽量不超过3位数，或小数点以后不多于1个“0”。如用30Km代替30000m，用5µg代替0.005mg等，并与正文一致。图和表的编号从前至后顺序排列，图的编号及说明位于图的下方，居中；表的编号及说明位于表的上方，居中。公式编号加圆括号，居行尾。图表中的字体不应大于正文字体。注意：图表标题中的数字也是“TimesNewRoman”。8．论文依次包括：封皮、内封、中文摘要、英文摘要、目录、正文、结论、致谢、参考文献、（附录），不要落项。9．注意：上面没有说“加粗”的“黑体”，均为“黑体不加粗”。补充：1．答辩要求：自述15分钟，回答问题10分钟，自述要求使用PPT答辩内容:1）.论文题目2）.设计内容3）.设计方案4）.如何完成设计工作原理软件或硬件设计制作调试安装5）.存在不足,今后努力的方向6).致谢3．最后上交学生装订好的论文、光盘、记录表、成绩单4．光盘里的文件夹命名为：学号_姓名_年级专业班级文件夹里包括的文件有：论文、ppt、英文翻译1）论文的文件名格式：学号_姓名_年级专业班号_题目（论文）_完成日期doc2）ppt的文件名格式：学号_姓名_年级专业班号_题目（ppt）_完成日期ppt3)英文翻译的文件名格式：学号_姓名_年级专业班号_题目（英文翻译）_完成日期doc例如：答辩问题5个，侧重总体思路一个11 软件或硬件一个翻译一个其他2个11